Asian Literature

Economy is a vital aspect in evaluating the progress of nations, and Korea is no exception to this standard. From the readings, it was possible to ascertain that Korea has experienced massive economic changes within the past two hundred years. We will examine the most important changes mentioned in these papers, and see how they fit into the social order at the time.

    We can start with Ko Dongwans evaluation of King Chongjos economic policies from 1776 to 1800. This paper focuses on the development of market trade, and stratifies this area into three spheres rural periodic markets, port markets, and city markets. Ko Dongwan asserts that rural markets experienced the most change during King Chonjos reign, transforming from scattered and isolated markets to highly-linked national markets. This paper goes on to discuss some other changes that mere made during this period, but that this shift in market economy was the key change in this era. These changes were good for the public, and allowed for more access to goods as well as uniform prices.

    Moving on to Kim Kuentaes paper, we begin examining the economy of Korea in the 19th century. This was a time of Rebellion for Korea, starting with the Peasants Rebellion of 1811. This happened because of corrupt officials who levied large taxes on the public, and unjustly acquired part of the money for themselves by doctoring census records which falsified population figures. By showing that only a few people lived in their area, they could secure more of the tax money for themselves as administrative costs. On top of this injustice, the land tax was made uniform throughout Korea, which allowed landowners to transfer the tax burden to the tenants this lead to much strife, because even in years with no harvest, the tenants were forced to pay taxes to the government.

Arthur Waley was born Arthur David Schloss in 1889. He was educated in Cambridge, completing a bachelor s degree in Classics. In 1913 he became the Assistant Keeper of Oriental Prints and Manuscripts at the British Museum. This was where his interest in Oriental arts began. While working in the museum, Waley taught himself Chinese and Japanese. He did so primarily to help him catalogue the materials in his guard. Later his interest in the region s literature and culture grew. When he was forced to resign for health reasons, he dedicated his life to furthering his interest.
He was named an Honorary Lecturer on Chinese Poetry at the School of Oriental Studies in 1948 (Simon, 1967). At the time of his death in 1966, Waley had translated numerous Chinese and Japanese works. He is considered one of the most respected Sinologists of all time (Morris, 1970). His translations are considered works of literature on their own. Ironically, Arthur Waley never got a chance to travel to the Far East (Morris, 1970).

     The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes  is one of the last works of Waley. He discovered sources that he felt would help paint a better understanding of the war. Arthur Waley was not a historian. His version therefore of events is unlike other historical writings about the opium war. He simply took individual chronicles of certain Chinese partakers and interpreted them in English. The book did not impose its conclusions about the war and the people involved in it. Apart from Waley s determination to give due respect to the Chinese participants, particularly Commissioner Lin, he restrained from imparting his own conclusion.

    Waley showed impartiality throughout the book but took the opportunity to reconstruct the image of one man, Commissioner Lin. As other European historians would document, Commissioner Lin was a non-factor in the event. He was often overlooked and treated with no respect in the light of the opium war. However in Waley s book he was a picture of dignity, determination, and honor. Commissioner Lin in fact spearheaded efforts to free China from the menace of opium. Waley expressed this unfair image of the man in the book saying
Some ten or more books on the opium war have been written in a number of different European languages, yet in none of them does Commissioner Lin, the leading figure on the Chinese side, ever come to life as a human being. (p. 11)

His disdain towards how the commissioner was depicted as a historical figure was evident in his words. Waley determined it was time that people finally learn the truth about the man.

    To underscore Waley s objectivity in recounting the story of the opium war, he was careful to choose narratives of everyday Chinese. He also chose personalities of different backgrounds, different livelihoods, and under different circumstances. In doing so Waley was able to capture the sense of those times and show  what the war felt like on the Chinese side  (p.5). It was important that Waley took bits and pieces from the experiences of different individuals to give a more multidimensional view of the event.

    All throughout the book Waley would translate the daily activities of the featured characters, including those days that seemed mundane and trivial. He would highlight their entries about the weather, nature, and other things. In one of Commissioner Lin s entries he wrote  In the early morning there was a violent north wind, but by the Hour of the Snake it calmed down a little and we were able to start  (p.16). Waley deliberately included such points to further emphasize that the figures in this collection are real people who had varied encounters. It rendered a sense of credibility to their stories.

 The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes  was used by Waley as a vehicle to impart real life experiences of the Chinese during those times. He chose to simply share their stories by translating personal confessions, diaries and autobiographies. This is what makes the book different from others. Waley in most parts avoided giving his commentary on the events that occurred. He communicated the thoughts of the Chinese participants and allowed the people to discern on their own. The result is a richly involving documentation of this very significant event.

    In the retelling of the opium war as seen by the Chinese so many cultural aspects were revealed. The personal journals exposed the various complexities within the Chinese society in those times.

    The time of the first opium war was turbulent. Commissioner Lin who was tasked to end the opium trade had to face many challenges from different sides. He had to battle against the British traders and he also had to wage war against the general population of China who were mostly addicted to the substance by the time he started his campaign. Through his ordeals conveyed in the book, it showed how times then were very dangerous even for a man like Commissioner Lin.   

    Opium trade in China was a result of the corrupt practices and greediness of some individuals of those times. In the beginning was deceit coming from the British that even Commissioner Lin knew no longer to believe what the they say (Waley, 1958). However the promulgation of the problem was because the Chinese also welcomed this new opportunity for good business. The book demonstrated the Chinese s inability to resist opium because of the promise of a more lucrative lifestyle. In this instance morality took a backseat to better economics.

    The book also painted a dark picture of the Imperial Army at that time. The military was looked upon with fear by the marginalized of society and they were distrusted by those who were educated and cultured. Commissioner Lin himself tried his best to change the image of his fellow soldiers in his travels. He was prudent in his ways and refused all the privileges offered to him just so he can restore faith in the Imperial Army. While he gained respect for himself, the general mistrust did not die down.

     The Imperial Government saw the devastation of opium trade in China. It decided to finally put an end to the substance s trade in 1836.  The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes  pointed out the insistence of China to implement its laws and pass fair judgment on those involved whether British or Chinese. It proved China s fortitude and commitment to its own protection.

    As history established, China lost the opium war to the British. In the end, their foreign counterparts were far too advanced in warfare. In page 175 of Waley s book, it stressed the disparity between the two camps. The British lost 3 men and had 23 injured in a fight  the heaviest loss that they had sustained in any action during the war  (1958). The weakness of the Imperial Army was evidently the reason for the defeat. However, to say that China did not fight strongly is a misconception. This was simply a lopsided battle of arsenal and techniques. 

    It is unfortunate that the loss of China also carried out a personal defeat to the commissioner who was exiled to Turkestan after the opium war. He was considered a disgrace to the Imperial Government because of his failure to complete his mission. It did not matter that defeating the British Military then was described as  not humanly possible (Waley, 1958).  It is unfortunate because this is how most people remember him and not by the actions he bravely took prior to the war. Through Waley s book however, Commissioner Lin s exemplary character was brought to light.

    Arthur Waley s book is a look into the opium war from the viewpoints of the Chinese, whether voluntarily or incidentally, that were involved. It stands to be different from other materials on the subject as it is based on Chinese sources and not European as most.

    It also stands to be different from the way it was written and put together by the author. While many history books would dwell on chronological events, most times indifferent to human emotions, Waley s is exactly the opposite.

    He showcased the fears, apprehensions, worries, joys, and other feelings of those who were there. For the first time, people got to experience a historical event through written word.

    Waley was also successful in opening the otherwise closed Chinese society, revealing many aspects of their culture that were directly and indirectly associated with the opium trade and the war. It allowed people to see that the Chinese culture may have similar challenges with others. They were also hampered by corruption, invasion, discrimination, and even injustice. However it also showed that just like any other culture, the Chinese s patriotism drove them to defend their land, no matter how difficult.

Waley was a Sinologist who translated Chinese sources in English. He did not intend to rival other historians about the opium war. He mainly desired a neutral view by supplying human-interest stories based on the event. And with that in mind, it can be said that  The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes  was a success for Arthur Waley.

The growing influence of Christianity and the threat it posed to the political structure of Japan were the primary reasons why Christianity posed a threat to the coming Tokugawa Shogunate and the rise of statehood that wanted to combat foreign imperialism.

The relevance of the Tokugawa Period (Edo Period) to the development of Modern Japan is based on the fact that it marked the restoration of imperial rule and ushered in the beginning of the development of early modern Japan.  The innovations that were introduced during this period included the increase in commerce through the encouragement of the shipping of commodities.  This resulted in the economic expansion of Japan on a domestic scale initially and eventually foreign commerce.  This also saw the flourishing of construction trades as well as banking facilities and merchant guilds.  Through these economic developments, Japan quickly saw the urbanization of its society and the rising economic independence through the increase in agricultural production and the spread of rural handicrafts which greatly revitalized the economy and helped convert a population that was comprised of 80 percent (80) peasants into a more mercantile population.  The changes that occurred during this era, however, were not without its consequences as it resulted in a shift in political power that had a great impact on the spread of Christianity in Japan during the 16th and 17th centuries and arguably to the rise of Japan due to the ban that resulted.  It is also for this reason why Christianity was as much a factor to the development of Japan during its presence as it was during its absence in Japanese society.

The relevance of the line and the previous statement comes from the fact that prior to the introduction of Christianity by Spain and Portugal, Japan was a very secluded society that had a rigid system of social classes.  During this time, the main religion was Buddhism and the ruling class was disjointed from the rest of society.  Japan was basically a fragmented society prior to the entry to Christianity.  This led to several problems such as civil wars that led to divisions within the country.  This infighting created a very chaotic situation where no single ruler enjoyed a tangible hold over the entire population resulting in weak institutions and poor control.

The introduction of Christianity to Japanese Culture was arguably both a boon and a bane necessitating the imposition of a ban in the 17th century.  Since the ruling parties were weak and the country was fragmented, Christianity began a transformation that would have far reaching effects and implications in Japanese history.  In the early part, Christianity was used as a colonizing tool that would make it easier for European powers to take advantage of trade in the area.  Over time, Christianity became more of a political force, an ideology that lent to the unification of Japan as Christian Daimyos would aid other Christian Daimyos in their battles against the non-Christians.  This is made quite clear in the support of Omura Sumitada and Arima Harunobu, who fought against the anti-Catholic Ryuzoji clan.  For Japanese Christians, the tenets of Christianity and internal government would hinge on the way they combated forces at a regional level via the battle for the domination of Christianity over the feudal system.

The growing influence of Christianity, however, was also perceived as a threat to the development of Japan.  The impact that Christianity had on the existing culture and society was such that it introduced a whole new moral and ethical code which was largely incompatible with the existing norms of society.  Though Christianity was still a minority, its growing influence was undeniable and it became inevitable that its spread would lead to clashes with the Buddhists and other political leaders.  The growing influence of Christianity and the threat it posed to the political structure of Japan were the primary reasons why Christianity posed a threat to the coming Tokugawa Shogunate and the rise of statehood that wanted to combat foreign imperialism.

The spread of Christianity was facilitated by the fragmented Japanese society that existed at this time.  With the spread of trade and commerce, there was an incentive to learn the ways of the old world, including embracing its practices.  However, the benefits ended there since such foreign imperialism was seen as a threat to the growth and development of Japan and soon contributed to the iron curtain policy that was erected for over 250 years.  While it would only be safe to guess at the impact on history had the ban never been imposed on Christianity, it would be safe to surmise that without Christianity, the influence and modernization that occurred during the Tokugawa Era, as well as those succeeding, would never have happened.

Southeast Asia once boasted of a prosperous and thriving culture prior to the arrival of the western colonizers.  Accounts written by travelers from China like Chau Jukua and the Muslim traveler Ibn Batuta would attest to that. When the western colonizers came, they had a common strategy of colonizing the native population. This was mainly done through divide and conquer. What they would do was to divide people according to ethnic or cultural background by grouping them into a geographic unit or region which they would define for them. This was a lot easier in the culturally diverse regions of Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines particularly the last two which are archipelagos, and their insular make up made divide and conquer a lot easy to employ.

    The divide and conquer rule was also made possible by the collusion of the local elites with the colonizers. What they would do was to enlist or curry the favor the powerful native elites and promise them concessions if they were to aid them in colonization. This was the case when the Spanish, and later the Americans, colonized the Philippines. The local elites, who were the chieftains of village-level communities called barangays, were highly revered and respected by their constituents. This was due to a patron-client relationship existing among them. These chieftains, called datus, were the people their constituents turned to for whatever need, whether it may be material aid or justice. The datu was essentially the father of the community, and it was his duty to see to the welfare of the village. In exchange, the loyalty of the village was assured owing to a Filipino trait of debt of gratitude where kindness is reciprocated with kindness and it would not sit well if this was not honored. Since they were the influential people of the community, getting their trust was the key, and when they did, they were rewarded with economic and political concessions. They were given new titles like mayors and governors and they also received economic privileges that their constituents could not have, yet their prestige was respected to ensure they would remain loyal (Owen, 2005, p. 152). This was the same strategy employed by the Americans when they replaced the Spaniards as the new colonial masters of the Philippines. This enabled them to prevail during the Philippine Insurrection where a nationalist was trying to defend the countrys fledgling independence.

    These concessions and privileges helped the local elites gain more power both politically and economically. They would become the wealthiest natives in colonial society, and they were so wealthy that they could afford to send their children to the best schools locally or abroad. In the Philippines, they were called the principalia class and their sons, owing to their western education, would become ilustrados or enlightened ones. It would be this new generation of local elites who would lead the struggle for independence against Spain (Owen, 2005, pp. 155-156).  It was also a somewhat cruel twist of fate that some of these elites would collaborate with the Americans and help the latter make the Philippines their colony.

    In conclusion, the local elites were the ones who benefited greatly from western colonial rule. Their collusion with the colonizers enabled them to gain political and economic privileges and at the same time acquire a degree of empowerment over the lower strata of society owing again to cultural traits. The case of the Philippines underscored that notion.  Long after the colonizers had left, the local elites continued to dominate local politics and the economy. With regard to the latter, they simply imitated or made use of the institutions left behind but combined it with local traits to give it a distinct local character which was what the former colonizers did not even expect nor approve.

There are five continents of the world with Asia being the largest both in terms of area and population, currently holding about 60 of the human population, with a diverse and rich culture. There is no one language in the region according to a survey there are about 2000 different languages in this region of Asia. The economies of Asia are mostly developing and thus attractive for investments from all over the world, profiting both the parties involved.

    The Asian continent is famous for its various ethnicities cultures and religions, which have resulted in bloodshed over time. Such ethnic and cultural violence includes the massacre of the people of East Pakistan by the Pakistani army which ultimately lead to the independence of East Pakistan now known as Bangladesh, The Gujarat clashes between the Hindus and the Muslims in India resulting in the deaths of thousands of innocent people.

Ethnic, religious and political violence in the continent have slowed the economic growth of some countries to a minimum. If careful investments are made in these regions it can provide various economic opportunities. These Asian countries lack the financial backing needed to boost their economies the West and the European countries can play an important role here and thereby not only making a profit for themselves but also allowing these countries to build up their economies.
The West perhaps has failed to seriously comprehend the potential economic advantages in the Asian continent. Those few western investors who do see Asia as an economic market on the verge of blooming have failed to properly utilize their products in the Asian markets (Chan, J., 2009). As suggested by Stephen Fitzgerald in his book, it is perhaps the fact that the West has failed to indulge itself into the Asian Culture, failing to understand their language and their mindset. The successful Asian economies namely the Chinese and the Japanese on the other hand have understood the Western mind because English language today is lingua franca of the region (Higham, Charles, 1989). The problem with English is that though it bridges the communication gap to some extent but it fails to depict the mind set of the person to which English is a second language. Therefore the impact that language has on business is very critical, and Stephen Fitzgerald emphasis this point greatly i.e. the time has come to indulge in the Asian culture and languages so as to better understand the economies of the region and to introduce the study of the Asian continent in the Australian education system so the reality and the existence of Asia can properly be introduced into Australian minds (Fitzgerald, S., 1997).

Another aspect which is a hindrance is the religious diversity and the attachment the Asians have towards their religion. The religions of Asia are ancient and therefore any changes in the cultural and social lifestyle is somewhat rejected. In other words the Asians mindset is very much immune to changes therefore it is the mindset to be changed and the only way that is possible is to take interest in the Asian languages and cultures.

To sum up, the cultural and religious diversity of Asia is something that lends to it a certain richness of character, and is a defining element of this continent. However, this attribute has also led to problems like violence and clashes over differences. Not just that, the attachment to age old customs and rituals has also acted as an impediment to progress. Regardless of this though, the Western world needs to recognize the immense potential that lies untapped in this region, and familiarize itself with the finer nuances of Asias culture (like its language) so that inroads can me made. This will lead to a mutually beneficial situation for both the West and Asia.

1. How did the Chinese government consider its population control
The government of China believes that the problem of population growth in China not only affects them but also the whole world. According to the Chinese government, the effort to control the rapidly growing Chinese population is a significant contribution to the worlds economy. The government also stresses that 6.7 of the globes cultivatable land is in China and supports about 21.4 of the worlds population and therefore must be protected.  The Chinese government also believes that control of population will help combat environmental pollution which is a global menace.

2. Has Chinas population control violated human rights
The Chinas restrictive population control policy is highly criticized by humanitarians, religious groups as well as politicians. The policy is regarded as inhumane, coercive, and a violation of womens rights. Religious groups do not accept family planning. Abortion is highly condemned by humanitarian organizations as it is seen as murder of an innocent being. Humanitarian organizations also claim that pushing for a womans birth control is infringement of right to privacy. It is claimed that the policy is being implemented against the will of many.

3. How did the Chinese government respond to the criticisms of Chinas population control
The Chinese government is wary of the intentions of the western communities for criticizing its population control policy. Government officials claim that the western communities are criticizing the policy because they do not want the country to develop. The Chinese government stated that the huge population is a problem and is determined to solve it in order to enhance economic development. Government officials stated that they are going to remain firm on their decision to implement the population control policy regardless of criticism from other countries. They stated that China must take care of the 20 of the worlds population, develop her economy, and provide a conducive environment for its people.

4. What are the differences between China and the Western countries
The cultural value of the Chinese and the western communities are very different. The population control policy of China therefore contradicts cultural ideologies and religious beliefs of the western societies. China is not as religious as many western nations. Though different religions exist in China, the Chinese have never been converted to any of them. In western communities, God holds the supreme power whereas in China, the supreme power is held by the emperor or the government. Western communities believe that a child is a gift from God, whereas the Chinese believe that children are a result of their marriage. Many western communities believe that a fetus is a full human whereas the Chinese believe that a fetus have not yet attained human characters.

5. How do you evaluate Chinas population control
I would rate Chinas population control the second best if not the best. The Chinese government has clearly played its role by implementing the policy. If the responsibility of controlling the population was left to people, it would fail miserably.

At some point in the 1500s, a number of European countries sailed through to   Southeast Asia to buy products like silk, rice, spices, and tea. Among them were France, Britain, and Spain. France particularly was impressed by Vietnams fertile and rich farmlands. The land was filled with mineral deposits and natural resources which France figured would be a good venture to make money for. This saw France send troops to conquer Vietnam and by the late 1800s, Vietnam was captured and declared Frances colony. Harsh colonial rule was then imposed upon the Vietnamese whereby the French constructed factories, excavated mines, developed tea and rubber plantations and forced the Vietnamese to work in these plantations. They were also forced to pay high taxes and were not allowed to hold any important political office or business positions.  The French also built churches and looked to convert the Vietnamese to Christianity (Kalman, 2002).

According to Maga (2000), Frances loss of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 was a contributing factor to the invasion of Vietnam in the name of reclaiming the lost glory. The postwar French government even went ahead to declare that France would become the centre of world business by 1900, which would make it the envy for all as well. In a bold move nicknamed Tonkin Ferry by the press, France, led by Prime Minister Jules Ferry, launched a successful military campaign and established a protectorate over Tonkin (Northern Vietnam) and invaded Central Vietnam, Annam.  This enabled him to connect longstanding French trade and Catholic interests in Southern Vietnam with the rest of the country. That was not enough.  France had a geopolitical agenda more to the pride and glory. The new Southeast Asian empire, to the postwar French government, was a weighing scale to English colonization interests in the region. It was a battle for colonies with the English and a cold war ensued between France and Britain. A single colony was never enough and the game was won by the nation with most colonies. Hence Vietnam became Frances security in their supremacy battle with the English.

The colonial rule was characterized by oppression and this resulted to farmers revolting against landlords and strikes by workers (Gibbons 1995). This however did not deter the French and they held on. The Vietnamese on the other hand did not give up and put up the resistance which eventually paid off. North Vietnam gained independence under its leader, Ho Chin Minh, who was also the leader of Commun party in Vietnam. The South was still however under a fraudulent government, backed by the United States and France, and North Vietnam sought to take control over it. It went ahead and attacked the South and this saw the Americans send thousand of soldiers to help the Vietnamese in the South. Schulzinger (1997) explains that the United States had been deeply involved in Vietnamese politics since the Geneva Conference held between May and July 1954. All along, it sought to frustrate the efforts to unite North Vietnam under the leadership of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam which was headed by Ho Chi Minh. Consequently, the United States supported the establishment of an alternative regime in the South which was headed by Ngo Dinh Diem and named the Republic of Vietnam (Schulzinger, 1997).

The Americans were however careful to distinguish their operations from those of the French and those of Great Britain. Although there emerged uncertainties about Diems political skills, he successfully established his rule in the North and the US opted to advance what experts portrayed as nation-building in South Vietnam. The North under Ho Chi Minh failed to reach a consensus with Diems regime and that was reason enough to trigger the resurgence of civil war by the end of the decade. During the period of the civil war, the United States remained the primary support of Diems government (Schulzinger, 1997).

President David Eisenhower together with his advisers was convinced that Diem portrayed true nationalism that could easily deny Ho Chi Minh the success won with his fighters in the war against the French. However, a few representatives of the Eisenhower government were concerned with the success and popularity of Diems government and constantly expressed their fears. This was not taken seriously and the United States officials in Washington and Saigon instead opted to pay no attention to the political limitations of the Republic of Vietnam. President David Eisenhowers administration had become trapped by success in South Vietnam (Gibbons, 1995).

Growing dissatisfaction with the incompetence and corruption of Diems government came to a conclusion during a military coup masterminded by Duong Van Minh. This saw the execution of Diem. South Vietnam was left with no one to take charge until Nguyen Cao Ky became leader in June 1965. South Vietnam continued to get military support from the US and attacks on the north continued. On the other hand, North Vietnam was receiving weaponry and technical support from the Soviet Union and other Communist states. In the end, the US and South Vietnam were unable to defeat the North forces and this led to the eventual withdrawal of the United States.

In conclusion, both France and the United States were blinded in that they did not realize the divisions between North and South Vietnam. Hence the different positions taken by the sides during the wars in Vietnam