Asian Literature

Ancient people used broad leaves to shade themselves from the harmful rays of the sun. However, leaves did not last long as they wither easily specially under the intense heat. The people built a long-lasting protection against the sun, thus paper parasol was invented.

Originally, the Chinese used a leaf to cover their parasols later on, however, they replaced the leaf with paper. The first paper parasol was built 2000 years ago in China where paper was invented. It was made of rigid bamboo spokes around a wooden shaft or handle. A strip of paper was then fitted or pasted on the spokes. Chinese artists paint the parasols with dragons, tigers, Chinese characters, flowers, landscapes and other Oriental themes and symbols. When they realized that the paper parasol was useless during rain, they applied wax or lacquer over the paper parasol to repel water. The lacquer or oil did not only make the parasol useful even during rainy season, but it also gave durability to the paper.

The Chinese people recognized that paper parasol symbolized nobility, prestige and social status. Noble or royal people had slaves to carry large parasols for them. Their parasols were elaborated, adorned with lace trimmings and silk was wrapped around the wooden handle. Some parasols of these noblemen were very large that they needed several slaves to carry them. In one Chinese legend, there was an emperor who went to the forest to hunt. While hunting, he was being protected from the heat of the sun with 24 paper parasols carried by slaves.

Today, there are various ways to protect oneself from the sun, so the usefulness of the paper parasol has recedes, although some people still use it. However, paper parasols are still valuable today as a fashion statement.  With their brilliant and colorful design, parasols are perfect for decorating any home, office or establishment. There are also appropriate paper parasols for every occasion like wedding or any party.

The Kimono is not just a form of dressing among the Japanese but is also a clear reflection of how the Japanese history has evolved. Its style has changed from one era to the next throughout its history to what it has become today. Its inception dates back to a period in their history referred to as the Jomon period. Then, it was in the form of a garment draped loosely over the body since the wearers then did not have much use for clothing as their main activity was hunting and gathering. Between 300 and 550 AD, the pattern of the Kimono changed and became a two-piece garment and this was greatly influenced by the arrival of Chinese who came and settled with the Japanese. They introduced worms made of silk which were used to make the clothing using a single colour, white.

During the next period between 550 and 710AD, the kimono style was differentiated into three groups namely uniform, formal and court. The garment was made in newer styles with the sleeves being modified to become longer and wider. The style varied depending on the intended group for which it was being made and the use of colour was also introduced. During the next three periods of Japanese history, the kimono evolved to become a very colourful garment that was designed in different colours and patterns for different purposes and age groups. Some new styles were adapted such as the making of the cloth in layers and having it made stiffer to accommodate their culture of sitting on the floor.

Because of the layering, there arose a need to modify the garment to facilitate movement and at the same time make it more attractive. Because of this, the use of dye was adapted to create interesting patterns on the cloth and at the same time, it was reduced to a single layer so that it was much lighter and all the patterns and flowers on it could be visible to all. Around 1912AD, the Kimono had developed to become a very important garment among the Japanese with artificial dye being used and different kinds of fabric being imported for use in designing the garment. By the beginning of the 20th century, lighter fabrics were being used to make the kimono and even though silk was still being used, the other fabrics became more popular since they were easily affordable and easy to maintain.

Today, the kimono is no longer as popular a form of dressing as it used to be before since most of the Japanese have adapted the western mode of dressing and mainly put on the kimono during special events or formal occasions. After the Second World War especially, most of the Japanese discarded the kimono in favour of other clothing styles but this is starting to change. During Japanese weddings for instance, most of the women will be seen in them since they find it to be the most suitable attire for the function. Examples of the special occasions include the christening of a new born baby, in plays or movies, weddings, festivals, funerals, among others.  There are also rules as to how they should be worn and they define which garment is suitable for what occasion.

Despite the fact that the kimono is no longer considered a garment to be worn every day, it is still an important garment to the people of Japan and young women are even going to the extent of attending classes where they are taught how to dress up in the garment. There has been a resurgence of the style in the 21st century with more and more Japanese men and women opting for the kimono and especially during their cultural celebrations. There are now a variety of styles for the garment and sometimes one may require the assistance of another person to be able to put it on. The patterns vary depending on age, sex, marital status, occasion, to mention but a few. There are also specific footwear for the kimono and the garment comes in different colours which depend on the occasion for which it will be worn. All in all, the Kimono has come of age and is now a garment that clearly defines the identity of the Japanese people.

Arthur Smith was a missionary from North America who wrote several narratives regarding his experiences and reflections about his travels. In his stay in China, he wrote a narrative about the Chineses national character entitled Chinese Characteristics. This was later translated into Japanese and was read by Lu Xun, a major Chinese writer and nationalists who had greatly influenced the post May Fourth Movement in China. His most famous work was The Truth Story of Ah-Q.   The search for a national character had been a pursuit for the Chinese ever since the idea regarding national character penetrated their traditions and ideologies. The idea comes from European nationalism. In the surface, the national character seems to portray the traits that the Chinese people possessed in general.

However, instead of being a factor to unite Chinese people as proponents of a nation, it revealed Chinese faults or negative traits. Thus, it led the Chinese to believe that they are doing things in the wrong way. Such criticisms about the Chinese are present in Arthur Smiths memoirs and narratives.
In Translating National Character Lu Xun and Arthur Smith, Lydia Liu elaborated on the connection that exists between Smiths writings and Lu Xuns view regarding the Chineses national character. After reading the chapter, it seems as though Lu Xun was highly influenced by the criticisms made by Smith regarding the Chinese traditions and way of life. Lu Xuns writings and perspectives revealed his personal interpretation of the Chinese national character based on western thoughts, predominantly from Arthur Smith. The connection was made based on the several references made by Xun about Smith throughout his writings. In addition, the national character that was described and reflected in Xuns writings were mostly reflective of Smiths description of Chinese national character.

Many authors had reflected the same view, without realizing that they are looking into the manner using a westerners lens and qualifications, instead of using their own.  For instance, Arthur Smith had criticized the manner in which Chinesemen seemed to hibernate during the first two hours of the afternoon. Bertrand Russell, a prominent western thinker, also perceives Chinese character as mainly negative.

Lu Xun largely agreed to Smiths presentation of Chinese national character. Taking into consideration that Lu Xun is a May Fourth movement writer, Lu Xun should have recognized that the national character is a western invention. By agreeing with Smiths ideas, Lu Xuns standards of national character had been defined by Smith. Although, Lu Xun argued against and even criticized some of Smiths reflections, in general he still believed that there is a thing called national character and such thing revealed the disease that China must cure.  The Story of Ah-Q, (a book written by Xun) reflects Lu Xuns agreement and criticism of Smith. It is one of the stories that connect Lu Xun and Smith, since it was written after Xun have read Smiths book. The main character Ah-Q resembles the national character that Smith had described. The descriptions of Ah-Q conforms Smiths point and the vest that Ah-Q was forced to wear resembled Smiths magistraterobe. In the same way, it could also be a presentation of how Lu Xun perceives himself to exhibit such national character. In detail, Lu Xun mentioned that I dissect myself much more often and much more savagely. He did not prescribe any medication (Xun perceived Chinese to have a national disease that hindered its progress), but he would like to reveal how Chinesemen thinks. Nonetheless, since he was influenced by Smith, the presentation of the national character is largely negative and biased towards the perspective westerners.

Lydia Liu described that the reaction made by Lu Xun to the writings of Smith affirmed that Xuns beliefs and ideas were influenced by western ideas (predominantly from Smith). Nonetheless, Liu also stressed that Lu Xun managed to give an account of Chinese national character by trying to emerge as the subject and agent of their own history. Lu Xuns writings revealed his reactions to Smiths ideas and his vision of recreating the Chinese national character.

A close reading of Musuis Story reveals that samurai ideals and the samurais way of life are not necessarily intricately tied with one another. Katsu Kokichis memoir offers readers a closer look into the life of someone who has been a part of the elite Japanese warrior class and who has failed to live up to the precepts of being a samurai at the same time. The firsthand accounts of a samurai who willingly transgressed the honor code of the highly esteemed warrior class provide a whole new perspective. A perusal of the text takes the readers to two sides of the same coinwhat is supposed to be the ideal lifestyle of Musui as a samurai and what in fact his behavior has been.
    One of the most notable experiences that a reader can get from reading Musuis firsthand account of his life as a samurai is that the reader is more easily absorbed into the story and, thus, is enticed to finish reading the text until the end. It is as if the reader himself is the actual narrator of the story which, in effect, makes him feel as though he is Musui. This creates the impression that there is no dividing line between the author and the reader. On the contrary, an account about Musui written by a modern scholar is akin to the situation where a person is speaking to another person through the telephone. In such a case, there may be certain nuances produced by the mediating elementthe telephone or, in the case of the book, the scholar. Essentially, reading a firsthand account such as the memoirs of Musui gives readers the pleasure and the privilege to relate to the message of the story or understand the story better, perhaps even both. It allows readers to clearly differentiate between Musuis life as a samurai and the ideal life of a samurai.
    However, the problem with the autobiography is the fact that it is an English translation of its original Japanese text. It raises the question of whether the translation is faithful to the original or whether the English version is as authentic as the firsthand account of Musui. These questions also raise the possibility that the reader may not be necessarily reading the original message of the text, thereby rendering the reading of the text an effort in futility. This is because the strength or weakness of the translation can greatly affect the readers understanding of the contrast between Musuis life as a samurai and what should have been his lifestyle as a samurai. Nevertheless, the text should be given the benefit of the doubt. While it may be contested as pure fiction dressed up as an autobiography owing largely to the fact that Musui admits to being a scoundrel, the text itself should still be treated as no less than a firsthand account albeit a translation of the original. Even if there are doubts as regards the fictional content of the memoir, readers and scholars alike can hardly contest the fact that the text remains a firsthand account. Whether this firsthand account is authentic or otherwise is another matter.
    Those things being said, it is reasonable to say that there is a grain of truth to the memoir, if not an entire truth to it. A samurai may be guided by the honor code but his actual actions in everyday life may prove to be quite detached from it. After all, a samurai is still a human being who is prone to error. The life of Musui attests to this. Indeed, it does not take to be a samurai to realize how people sometimes or oftentimes tend to lose sight of moral ideals despite moral doctrines and other honor codes in the society. Reading a firsthand account such as Musuis memoir is both enlightening and challenging. It stimulates the mind into better appreciating the life of samurais during Japans early feudal years. It also compels readers to carefully scrutinize the story and place it in the context of history including its well-established facts and others regarded as pure fancy.

It is the capacity to create an active environment for readers to participate and recreate the scenarios of the past and present alongside the ability to merge and reproduce insights of the characters intention are what makes Shusaku Endos work When I Whistle address the themes presented in the story. Such process not only provides a narrative of the story of the two distinct protagonists in the story but also finds a way to recreate a connection and transcendence to each one. Thus, it is by exploring such literary techniques and changing the mood of the story that Endo was able to address meeting the themes of the book.
    Reflecting on story, it can be seen that the capacity of Endo to use literary themes such as flashback is one example of how to address the development of the theme in the story. It involves the representation of the first persona Ozu who has been characterized in the book as an underachiever whose business did not really succeed. In such direction, the author first introduces the character then sets the readers to re-examine his life in the past with key characters such as Flatfish and Aiko.
    It is in this time that the readers are taken back to the old Japanese era wherein conventions and standards coexisted with the culture itself. In portraying this theme, Endo captivates readers with literary techniques that seek to legitimize the use of a sad tone. This melancholic manner of portrayal then showcases and highlights the problems faced by Ozu and justify the situations happening in his life at the present. This can also be seen as the author seeks to provide a glimpse of the sad memory that the characters felt especially during the onset of the attacks in Pearl Harbor.
    On the other hand, a new perspective comes into the picture with the introduction of Eichi. As the story progresses, Endo makes a good justification not to introduce the character of Eichi as the son of Ozu as it makes the culminating point of convergence in the story. Prior to this introduction, he is known as an ambitious doctor seeking to compensate and learn from the mistake of his family concerning the value of status. It is through such analogy that the method of delivery is different from the manner in which Ozus character is depicted.
    Elaborating on this idea further, the manner in which Eichi is portrayed seeks to create something more professional. This straightforward and simple way of how the character is deduced provides readers the seriousness Eichi needs. In turn, it also fosters a redefinition about the difference between Ozu as the author makes a point and links their ideals and differences in the middle of the story. It is through such manner that the book seeks to assume its main plot and redefines the way readers understand each characters plight.
    Another way that Endo was able to the theme of the story was the ability to converge the two different characters together. In here, the hospital scene where Eichi works serves as the transformation of the story from two contrasting personalities towards understanding the questions posed by the readers at the start of the book. Despite their conveying variations in the way they are portrayed, they continue to exhibit the same blood. It is through this that the readers now begin to understand the way life has changed through the years.
    Lastly, alongside the use of literary devices, Endos usage of effective word choices and eloquent manner of writing that distinguishes between the two characters is what makes the theme apparent to readers. Under this process, it gives readers the overall idea of what goes on not only in the given scenarios and environment of the protagonists but also instill the appropriate values that each one tries to pursue. In here, the functions of these traits seek to exemplify and illustrate how it has changed and molded characters for who they are. It is through such immersions that Endo was able to justify the way each character responded to situations and how they became adaptive to their given environment.
    Due to this, it can be surmised that the climax of the story is a good point where readers would realize the theme of the story. It is through such further reading that each one can deduce the value and significance of the intentions posed by Ozu and Eichi and how their individual aspirations have led towards their particular reactions. It is through such essence that the ending of the story also have resulted in such manner. Here, we can see Endo ending Ozus story in a more traditional manner wherein the narrative remains simple and humane. On the other hand, Eichis story remains open-ended not knowing what will happen to the character. It is through such transcendence that the book gives emphasis on what shall happen to its characters.
    Overall, Endos analogy uses the variation of time and thus becomes an important component to dictate the theme of the book. In here, he was able to differentiate and link the two characters story by using time. With the application of this concept, it can help readers understand that the shift in ideals and values have also resulted in the process. In here, it can be seen that Ozu represents the traditional Japanese society who has been adherent to social customs and standards. On the other hand, Eichi represents modernity with the adherence to Western ideals. Such evidences can be seen in the way each one addresses the situations surrounding them and the way they treat every important decisions they make in their respective lives.

The Greek Epic Iliad and Irans Shah-name were produced during different eras yet they became the mouth piece of not only their generation but also for the decades ahead. According to Professor Gilbert Murray, the epics of Greece were the embodiment of the progressive spirit, an expression of the struggle of the human soul towards freedom and ennoblement while Shah-name was written during 10th century presenting the history of glorified Iran. They have both the religious, moral as well as universal appeal. Greek literature has its special significance in the Western civilization as their stories of the Trojan War, heroic deeds and mythical figures of Gods and Goddesses convey the moral lessons, redemption of soul and cycle of life and death.

While Shah-name literally means Book of Kings and while presenting the historical reign of 50 Persian Kings shows us how the human beings can attain immortality through their heroic deeds, the fate they are incapable to escape and the divine blessings bestowed upon the monarchy. Thus the following essay will compare Iliad by Homer, the great Greek epic with Shah-name, the magnificent poetic opus by Ferdowsi stressing the importance of heroism, moral values and above all preserving identity while evoking human concerns and pathos. Iliad, which is considered as the one of the largest epic poems in Greek was written by Homer around 8th century BC and is more a story of war and glory. Characters emerge as a strong force always ready to fight to attain lost glory and pride. Several critics have given their own version on the reason behind writing Shah-name by Ferdowsi for e.g. as said by G. E. Von Grunebaum, Ferdowsi wrote Shah-name to create unity in Iran by showing how Iran since centuries had been unified whole. Meanwhile Ruben Levy found that the main motive behind Ferdowsi was to deliver the story of what he believed in his fatherland to be. Levy further states that there is unity in the theme amidst the hostility in the universe.

The epic of Shah-name is based on the historical and mythical rules of 50 Persian kings. The whole epic is divided into three parts- the first one tells about the way Persia was created and its earlier fabled past, in the second part we can read the tales of the legendry kings and heroes of the Rostam and Sohrab, while the third part has both the historical facts as well as legends. (Farhat-Holzman, 2001) The whole epic is about the rule of kings while Iliad is a story about mythical figures especially about the deeds of goddesses and gods and about the behaviors and about the persons of highly noble and virtuous character who by their deeds attain power as equivalent to gods. But overall it is the story of Achilles, who was determined to overcome Hector of Trojan. The main motive of the war was to release Helen, wife of Menelaus, the king of Sparta, who was won over by the Troy of Paris, who was the son of King Priam. Naturally Menelaus was enraged and wanted to take revenge. He invited many kings and princes from Greece to help him. Among them were Achilles, Ajax, Diomedes, Odysseus, and Nestor and their commander in chief was the Agamemnon, the king of Mycenae and brother of Menelaus.    After preparing for two years, the King gathered the fleet of more than 1000 ships and an army of 100,000 men at the port of Aulis towards the northeastern Greece.  Unfortunately as they were preparing to take the sale, they were apprehended by the windy sea at Aulis. On asking the reason behind the delay, they were informed that Agamemnon had killed one stag which was sacred to goddess Artemis (or Diana) and only the sacrifice of the Agamemnons daughter could make the goddess satiated. Agamemnon was forced to agree. He ordered Iphigenia to be brought to alter but goddess took back her words instead she took Iphigenia away keeping deer instead for sacrifice. Obliged Iphigenia became a priestess in the temple at Tauris. Now as the anger of Artemis had gone, the wind got calm allowing the ships to sail. When they arrived at their destination, they found Trojans ready to counter their attack. As King Priam was very old, yet he had arranged for the supplies and forged alliances with the neighboring kingdoms to give tough stand to their attackers. The city was covered by the walls and was protected by the warriors Hector, Aeneas, Sarpedon, and others.The Greeks lay seized to the Troy for consecutive nine years, but could not get success. At this crucial juncture, Achilles got into dispute with Agamemnon and decided to step back from the war. Then only after his friend Patroclus died that Achilles joined the battle again. He put to death Hector in the battle field, but later he was also killed making the Greeks succumbed to the utter dismay.     It was only later that Odysseus formulated a strategy with a help of the goddess Athena, he constructed a wooden horse with a capacity for 100 warriors, with the best ones made to hide inside while the remaining of the Greeks were ordered to get onto the ship as if they were sailing back home in defeat. Thinking this horse as a peace offering from the Greeks, Trojans pushed it inside the walls. Though they were warned by the priest and Cassandra, daughter of King Priam yet Trojans did not heed to their warning. As soon as they slept in the night, the Greek warriors appeared from the horse and gave signal to the ship to return, and soon thousands of Greeks thronged into the city and by the morning turned the city into ashes. Helen was rescued and triumphant all took their journey back. Only the one person whose voyage was longest was the Odysseus, whose adventures are narrated in the next epic. As a matter of fact in any society, winning in a battle is a glorious preoccupation for warriors and defines their position in their group. All actions are governed by the ability to lead the battle, tactics and strategies in war front, the physical attributes bestowed on them by God, the strength of army, their past endeavours and familys reputation. Shah-name by Ferdowsi narrates the history of Persia before the Arab conquered the area. Written in the poetic form and in Dari Persian, the tales begin 7000 years age, about the works, deeds and lives of the Persian knights, kings, laws, religion, victories and Persian tragedies. For most of the information, Ferdowsi relied on the historical and mythical events. Though Shah-name unlike Iliad has many persons adorned with the superior qualities of valour and courage, yet the real depiction is of Persia and its legend past.  There are many stories in Shah Name but here the mention of the tale Sudabeh reveals the heroic traits of the kings and princes. Sudabeh was the wife of Kay Kaus, who was shah of Iran, and stepmother of Prince Siyavosh. She had been responsible for sending Siyavosh to go to exile. At the time when young Siyavosh, who was brought up and trained away from the court of the father, came back, Sudabeh saw him and fell in love with him. Cleverly she forced Siyavosh to go into privacy with her to visit her sisters. There she made an attempt to seduce her. Siyavosh showed resistance as he never wanted to betray his father. Sudabeh felt sad and tried to make her husband go against his son. After strives and conflicts, Siyavosh finally decided that he would leave the court of his father and move towards Turan. Unfortunately Siyavosh was murdered at Turan, and when Rostam came to know about the plans of Sudabeh, he held her responsible for his death so he got her killed.  Firdowsi never wanted his reader to just read his Shahnama to have knowledge about the historical facts but wanted them to think differently, to analyze critically the reasons behind the rise and downfall of the nations and individuals, to learn the lessons from the past, make improvements in the current life and shape the future. Ferdowsi believed that since the moments and the happenings in the world are short lived and every body is just like a passenger, a person should not indulge in avarice activities. He should not tell lies or do anything evil or conduct cruelty among humans, instead humans should adopt moral values of truth and honesty. Overall Ferdowsi wanted to convey the point that the history of Sassanid Empire was unchallenged and complete in it. It began with Keyumars and came to an end with fiftieth scion and successor, Yazdegerd III. Ferdowsi in his work projected six thousand years of the glorious Iranian history with the main motive to protect this history from the danger of generation next Persians.  The Greek Epic, Iliad and Irans Shah-name were the great literary works of their respective area and era yet had universal appeal. They were not of the one generation but for the many generations ahead as through their tales were produced values which had been cherished by the human beings since centuries. Both these tales are different in nature, context, theme and language but many of their themes are same, as both of them give importance to the heroism, other moral values and traits. 

Stephan Owen, a Canadian politician noted that there exists a general interest in the relativity of perceptions as well as in the relationship that exist between perception and human response. This was in apparent response to Wang Wei, an artist, painter and a poet. In his statement he referred to the translation of what humans perceive in the brains into visible things. Wang transformed his perceptions into paintings and poems. This statement was in deed a reflection of the Buddhists idea.
Buddhists have always through their doctrines expressed the need for individuals to be mindful about what they think, speak or even do. They believe that human beings minds are interconnected with or without the knowledge of conscience. They believe that the human mind is in constant transmission of broadcasts. They further believe that the thoughts of one human mind has an effect on other people and that our actions and responses are as a result of these thoughts. They believe that its our strong negative emotions that results into physical violence or even war while on the other hand the positive emotions result into peace. This is just an expression of how much impact the Buddhists believe, that human perceptions have on response. These Buddhist concepts are all enshrined in Stephans statement where there exists an expression of the effect of perception to human response. Stephan just like the Buddhists illustrates how Wang transformed the perceptions into a response which resulted into poems and drawings. This is true as art has always been used as expressions of ideas within ones mind.
In conclusion its thus therefore important to note that Stephans words,  just like Buddhist ideas acknowledge the existence of perceptions and that these perceptions are transformed into a human response.