Asian Literature

In the past five years, massive changes in Chinas economic structure have been witnessed.  This has resulted to rapid economic growth that has turned China into one of the worlds largest economy. Economic growth has also been witnessed in Chinas neighboring nations such as Taiwan, Japan, Thailand and Singapore.  Historical changes in China have played a major role in the growth of Chinas economy and political influence at the regional and international levels.  Recent developments in China have influenced its relationship with other countries especially the Western nations and the developing countries.  Although for a long time China did not achieve much in economic development, changes in its economic reforms have transformed China into an economic powerhouse over a very short period (Alon and McIntyre, 2008). Chinas relations with other countries have played a critical role in triggering changes in its economic structure which have led to rapid economic development.  This paper will give a historical aspect on how China has managed to achieve massive changes in its economic structure based on its relationship with other countries.

Factors that have contributed to massive changes in Chinas economic structure
The massive changes that have been experienced in China in the past five years can be attributed to the economic reforms that were introduced in China in the 1970s coupled with its improved relations with foreign countries (Dong, 2006). Although the restructuring of the economy has contributed to economic growth, some of the challenges that the country is facing in relation to the economy include corruption, economic crimes, environmental pollution, and lack of adequate job growth and high rate of domestic savings. Historical events which have shaped Chinas relations with other nations have influenced changes in Chinas economic structure. For instance, in the seventeen and eighteenth centuries, Chinas economic development was increased by its participation in global trends through knowledge and development in science. It was during the Qing rule when the British discovered that China was a good market for opium (Hostetler, 2000).An increase in foreign trade and investment had positive impact on the economy and new technologies began to get into China (Ebrey, Walthall and Palais, 2008).In late 18th century and 19th century, foreign trade expanded in China and the flourishing of the trade led to monetary crises. The Chinese domestic textile industry was affected because of the availability of Western machine made products (Hanes and Sanello, 2004).  Changes in ideological and social levels due to changes emanating from the opening up of China to foreign nations after the opium war played on important role in encouraging changes within the economic structure (Tucker, 2008). For example, the establishment of a foreign ministry in China allowed it to embrace the use of modern technology in factories, modernize the army and study the Western technology. Diplomatic relations between China and other nations over the years improved economic cooperation, a factor that has promoted rapid growth in the country.


      An example of an event that has changed the Western nations opinion about China is the debate on exchange rate. In the recent years, global debate on Chinas currency exchange rate has raised the question of whether China should have its currency revalued. Growth of trade in China has played a key role in economic development. Concerns by its trading partners that the currency exchange rate provides an advantage to Chinese companies due to the value of Yuan has   increased pressure on China to allow the value of its currency to float at a rate that is stronger. Currency arrangement can  be a source of unfair competition hence the exchange rate debate  has set the stage for discussion between the Chinese leaders, the United States and other  world leaders to address the issue. The pressure for revaluation has also emanated from the central bankers and ministers for Group seven (G7) who argue that the low Chinese Yuan exchange rate provides a competitive exporting advantage to the Chinese companies (Zhang, 2004).The rapid economic growth in China has had other countries record trade surplus, putting pressure on accelerating inflation and the financial system in the countries. Chinese leaders have been encouraged to respond to the calls for RMB revaluation by embracing necessary economic reforms which can ensure that the Chinese economy rebalances. Chinas legal tender is referred to as RenMinbi (RBI) and changes in the currency for the most part of the half century have been minimal. Since 1994, the currency has remained at 8.28 Yuan to the US dollar. In July 2005, China revalued Yuan against the US dollar by 2.1 per cent. The claims that the Chinese currency has been undervalued have triggered controversial debate on the issue at a global level. One side claims that the Chinese currency is undervalued hence there is need for revaluation and floating of the currency. The proponents of this argument assert that Chinese exporters are at an advantage as compared to other international exporters due to the undervaluation of the currency. As a result, a trade deficit in countries that trade with China is experienced. Despite the pressure that has been mounting on China to address the currency issue, opponents to this argument oppose immediate revaluation and floating of the Chinese currency because it could destabilize the global economy and the international monetary system. However, economists hold the opinion that revaluing the Yuan may not solve the global trade imbalance. In the highly competitive global market, having the playing ground for all countries leveled is considered to be fundamental. Furthermore, rapid economic growth, industrialization and increased investment has increased competition among nations in trade.Therefore, the need to eliminate unfair competitions has created concern about Chinas currency. However, discussions of this debate still remains inconclusive (Yang et al, Accessed in 2010).                  

    In July 2005, Chinas fixed currency exchange rate ended. Since then, the Yuan has had relative appreciation to the US dollar.However, this has not been satisfactory for the foreign nations especially Chinas trade competitors. China has been reluctant to act quickly about the issue due to fears that revaluing the currency exchange rate immediately may have negative impact on domestic economic conditions. This has made many officials from Western nations to be concerned about Chinas reluctance to act on the issue. Although Chinas response to the RenMinbi exchange rate debate implies that the officials are willing to float the exchange rate, they support this in controlled stages instead of introducing reforms through immediate implementation. This suits the Chinese policy that advocates for proper response to issues in stages. For example, statements by Chinese officials during the recent APEC meeting in Australia (Coolum) indicated that China does not necessarily have to respond to the issue of exchange rate as recommended by the other countries but in a manner that does not undermine economic growth and domestic industriescompanies. The challenge is how to introduce reforms and maintain the good momentum of the Chinese economic growth while at the same time implementing controllable, self-initiated and gradual reforms.

       Chinas   role in shaping the global economy has continued to grow. It has become a major competitor for Western nations in relation to trade and economic growth. The Western nations have taken notice of the increasingly close relations between China and Russia in the recent past. For example, in October 2009, the Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin made an official trip to Beijing to discuss economic matters with China. The relation between the two countries has focused on energy cooperation. China and Russia have been negotiating an agreement that would turn China into one of the largest consumers of Russian natural gas. Chinas efforts to establish international relations outside the Western nations have undermined the West dominance in trade cooperation with developing and developed nations. For example, China has been actively involved in BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China organization) and the Shanghai cooperation organization (SCO).These organizations have enabled China to increase its economic and political influence in foreign countries. The West view that China has great influence of global trade trends due to its industrial ability has intensified competition in the global markets. In the beginning of 2009, the global financial crisis had adverse effects on Chinas economy .The Chinese companies experienced difficulties in production and management, an issue that had some of them closed down. Furthermore, there was a decline in exports. These events slowed down economic growth in China. The Chinese government responded to the crisis through a stimulus package that has been critical in triggering economic recovery. The West acknowledges Chinas top place in global trade due to the fact that China attracts investment worth billions of dollars annually. Furthermore, the Western nations view bilateral cooperation with China as strategic in economic growth, global politics and security. Bilateral cooperation with China in science and technology, trade and investment as well as sustainable development is a mutually beneficial arrangement. Chinas location in Asia allows the West through cooperation to influence political and security issues in Asia-Pacific. Chinas urbanization and industrialization affects the global economy and preconceptions and prejudices of the West about China have attracted criticism on its policies. The global financial crisis has emphasized on the need for China and the Western nations to partner in order to encourage global economic recovery .For instance, the United States and the European Union nations demand for Chinas products declined due to the crisis. As a result, medium-size and small factories in China have been closed down. In addition, a decline in Chinas sales of electronics and automobiles as well as cutting back of steel production due to the crisis confirms how a financial crisis can have adverse effects on industrialized nations. The Chinese government has responded to the crisis by supporting the small businesses enterprises, strengthening financial supervision and regulation and increasing investment in social programmes and infrastructure. For Chinas trading partners in the West, economic cooperation with China has had positive impact on trade and job creation. The nations consider China to be vital in efforts that address financial crisis and have advocated for cooperation and coordination between nations to have the global financial system stabilized.

    Chinas rare metals have for a long time accounted for over 95 per cent of the total world output (Jia, 2009). These metals include indium, tungsten and the rare earth. In addition, deposits of rare metals such as Germanium and Molybdenum in China are among the most extensive mineral deposits worldwide. In efforts to protect its resources, China has made efforts to have the rare metal deposits protected and rare metal reserve system established. Despite the high demand for the metals that continue to be experienced, China production and rare metal exports have been declining. The European Union and the United States have expressed concern over this issue and have in some cases implied that China is trying to get an unfair advantage by stockpiling the rare earth elements. For example, the Chinese officials concerns that  metals mined  at Bayanobo region  are very important for Chinas technological  future has encouraged the protection of the reserves through restricted mining .Mining of the rare metals in China has resulted to adverse effects on the environment, an issue that has attracted criticism from foreign nations about environmental destruction caused by mining. Some nations have even encouraged China to minimize levels of mining to address the environmental problem. The rare earth elements production is expected to decline   in future due to the increasing demand of the metals. China is considered to be protecting its domestic supplies of precious metals but competition in trade involving rare metals has been increased by production in other countries such as Canada.

Apart from the issue of the rare metals, competition for oil by industrialized countries has raised concerns on global energy security. Chinas rapid economic growth has increased industrial growth, leading to an increase in the demand of oil. Chinas quest for oil has made it a threat to energy security of other nations as competition for the resource increases. Efforts to address the oil and energy needs have had Chinese state-owned firms receive support from the government to buy stakes in countries that have been shunned by the West. A good example is Sudan which has been shunned by the West but Chinas interest in oil has resulted to investment in the country. Chinas demand for oil has made it necessary for the West to put into place strategies that will increase energy security in future. This is because the Western nations are concerned about the Chinese government subsidized lending to state-owned companies that handle the issues of oil and energy. Chinas vital role in global economy and politics has been focused on by the media at the national and international levels. Chinas increasing demand for oil is placing at stake the West security and access to energy and oil resources (Djoumesssi, 2009).Furthermore, the Russian and Chinese state-owned oil companies have been competing with the western companies for oil in Asia and Africa. The support these companies have received from some rich members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting (OPEC) countries has raised concerns in the West about future prospects of oil despite the West dominance in the oil industry. There are fears that these companies may take control of global oil market hence reduce the dominance of the US and European nations dominance in the oil industry. China has increased its investment in African countries that are rich in oil .For example, China has boosted economic cooperation with oil rich African countries such as Angola and Nigeria in efforts to increase its access to oil and energy resources.

    In China, the media plays an important role in demanding for changes in the society and although the media is controlled by the government, it has had a strong commitment to women emancipation (Yuanjuan and Xiaoming, 2007).The media puts emphasis on the contribution that Chinese women make to social and economic development. This has increased womens participation in efforts that increase economic growth. Under the Communist rule, the political environment was characterized by socialist revolutions and political consciousness (Burgh, 2003). Because women in China are now able to participate in social and economic development, they can interact with the rest of the world. The spirit of entrepreneurship in the country was resurrected after Deng Xiaoping made the people realize that their lives could be improved by working hard. He also improved Chinas relations with foreign nations which eventually led to improvement in Sino-US relations. This has made great changes in the economic structure and the private sector in China now contributes to a large proportion of the Gross Domestic Product (Gilpin, 2001).  This development has become a driving force to Chinas growth in development. Globalization has increased capital, advancement in technology and human resource development in China. This has made China one of the worlds largest destinations for foreign investment.  For example, it is estimated that China European foreign direct investment in 2004 reached 60billion. 

    Sino-US relations have influenced the role of China in the global economy. The relations between China and the US have had stabilizing influence on the global economy and the changes in Chinas economic structure have been promoted its trade partnership with the US. The two have become major trading partners and because the US is the worlds largest economy, its trade relations with China have contributed to massive changes in Chinas economic structure. The two have shown similar interests in relation to economic growth and proliferation of nuclear weapons. The Sino-US relationship is considered to be one of the most important bilateral relationships in the world despite the fact that China and the US have had their relations damaged by disagreements in economic and political issues. For example, recently, a visit by Tibets spiritual leader Dalai Lama to the US did not go well with China. However, cooperation between the two has been promoted by the aid that the US has provided to China. Although the US has criticized China for violation of human rights   in relation to Chinas internal matters, the establishment of the United States Liaison Office (USLO) in Beijing as well as embassies in Beijing and Washington has promoted diplomatic relations between China and US. The financial relationship between China and the US is expected to play a critical role in the future global economic development. The relationship has been promoted by the bilateral cooperation between the two in relation to trade and political issues (Rosecrance and Guoliang, 2009). Many American companies have already invested in China as multinational companies. Chinas role in the rapid growth of trade in the US economy has been positive but trade tensions continue to be witnessed .The tensions have been attributed to Chinas large surplus in the US market. Environmental problems in China undermine good financial relations with the US. Chinas industrial development has resulted to high levels of pollution and environmental degradation and this has made it the focus of conservation debates. For instance, poor response to environmental problems by the Chinese government had the US Exim bank refuse to provide export finance to facilitate the Three Gorges Dam projects.

    To support the US-China financial relationships, a US-China Joint Economic Committee has been established .Chinas integration in the global economy has given rise to financial problems in high income countries such as the US. The US economic policy towards China advocates for economic and political liberalization in the country as well as its integration in the global financial institutions. The US considers the integration of China in the world economy and economic liberalization to be some of the critical ways through which it can pursue its policy objectives of development, democratization and reforms. Conflicts in financial matters relate to intra-industry trade, bilateral imbalances and economic-related legislations. For example, lack of effective intellectual property rights (IPR) in China has been a source of trade dispute between China and US. Although China has asserted that it is committed to strengthen its IPR laws, incidents of piracy are still high in China. The pirated commodities often find their way into the third country markets and this hurts the American exports in these markets. Economic interests of the two nations have made it necessary for them to maintain good financial relations. In the recent past, the US and China have been experiencing problems in relation to the Chinese currency .To resolve the issue, the China-US Strategic and Economic  Dialogue has been engaged both parties in talks. China is now a member of the World Trade Organization and the adoption of the national treatment principle promoted competition between the private sector and state owned enterprises in the country. The interweaving of Chinas interests with those of the European Union and the US has encouraged Chinas participation in globalization. Europeans nations have benefited from growth of the Chinese market. The EU has become Chinas second largest trading partner and sectoral dialogues and agreements between the two focuses on education, environmental protection, culture and industrial policy. Meetings between European Commission and China as members of the ASEM continue to improve economic relations between the two. This has made Chinas role in global economic and political matters vital. Chinas cooperation with the neighboring nations has been motivated by the need to promote regional security and economic development with the changes in the economic structure aiming at accommodating the interests of foreign nations in the region. Furthermore, China has improved its trade relations and cooperation with the neighboring nations such as Japan, Korea  Taiwan.  Its role in regional economic integration in South Asia has been evident in organizations such as ASEAN3(Association of South East Asian Nations) and ASEM (Asia European Meeting). This has improved Chinas trade relations with Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Japan and Taiwan. Intensive economic integration has also enabled China to play a vital role in international politics.  The historic rise of China has attracted the attention of the media and is currently portrayed by the media in a different way.  Chinas role in the global economy has earned it China great attention from the media.  The US and the other Western nations are therefore making efforts to improve trade relations with China because they acknowledge Chinas role in the global economy (Ye, 2006). Chinas rapid economic portrays  a positive image in the West and its  aid to developing countries especially those in Africa has won it a good name in matters of development.Furthermore,Western media now encourages good relations between China and the West due to the benefits that are derived from bilateral cooperation. Chinas role in maintaining regional security in South Asia won media attention and has attracted foreign nations to cooperate with China in addressing political matters and the threat of terrorism.

     Due to the changes China has experienced in its economic structure, it has managed to participate in the economic development of developing nations especially in Africa. China economic relations with African countries are not new. It has made investments in infrastructure development in African nations such as Kenya and Tanzania. Chinas aid to Africa exceeds aid that African countries receive from western nations and this has encouraged good trade relations and cooperation with the developing countries (Smith and Davis, 2005).  China has enjoyed great economic benefits from the trade relations it has established with many African countries. For example, its interest in economic resources has had China invest in Sudans oil industry and development of infrastructure. The withdrawal of Western nations in countries affected by civil war such as Sudan has been a great advantage for China. Other oil producing countries that China is working with include Nigeria and Angola. 

    Sino-French strategic and political dialogues have become intense and more institutionalized. France is one of the Western nations that have managed to establish close relations with China .Relations between China and the Western states has been motivated by the need for global partnership (China and the West, 2010). .Mao Zedong and De Gaulle recognized that there was need for them to free their countries from constraints imposed by a bipolar world.  Military relations between China and France developed cooperation that was later undermined by the Tiananmen Massare.However, France renewed its cooperation with China in 1991.Since 2002, the relations between the Chinese and French governments have been improving (Cabestan, 2006).Beijing and Paris have continued to share similar views on issues such as promotion of multilateralism, non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, disarmament and the Taiwan issue.. France has even attempted to convince other European nations to lift the arms embargo that was imposed on China after Tiananmen. The French government recognizes that China has made improvements in the human rights issue hence the relations between the two have boosted Chinas strategic position in the global economy and politics. To develop a privileged relationship with China, France has supported its trade partnership with China in exports. China and France consider making the world plural and multi-polar important because it balances US domination on the globe and alleviates international tensions.

    Historical events in China have proved that its relations with other nations have triggered massive changes in its economic structure in the past five years. China has become the second largest economy in the world after achieving rapid economic growth over a short period of time. The rise of China in the global economy has increased its significance in global politics, regional security and economic development of South East Asia. China has made efforts to improve its image in the West despite the criticism it receives from the nations about violation of human rights Although China has managed to establish diplomatic relations with other nations, difference in views with other countries has   led to hostility between China and the involved countries. The relationship between China and other countries has no doubt played a vital role in Chinas economic development.

There are many development problems or rather problems that hinder development in the Asian continent. Poverty is one of those many problems that have been hindering development for a very long time in majority of countries in Asia. Poverty can be defined as a situation whereby people are not in a position to afford the basic needs, proper health, clean water and proper nutrition (Geyndt, 1996). There is absolute poverty and relative poverty and also voluntary poverty.

Relative poverty is a case whereby people have fewer resources compared to others in the society, absolute poverty is where by people earn or spend less than one US dollar every day and voluntary poverty is the case where people have all the resources necessary, but failure to work lead to poverty (Geyndt, 1996). In Asia, majorities live in absolute poverty and that is why this paper shall major on the absolute poverty.  The paper shall discuss the extent of poverty in the continent and the policies that governments have put in place to alleviate the problem as well as the solution that is most effective to the problem.

Background Information
Poverty in Asia has persisted for a very long time. In the year 1990, Asia was recorded to have a population of 2.8 billion which was about 55 of the worlds population, and about one third of the population was recorded to be living in absolute poverty (Geyndt, 1996). Absolute poverty means those who are earning less than one US dollar per day. Geydnt (1996) continues to note that 80 of these populations who live in absolute poverty live in the rural areas. However, women are more affected by the problem of poverty than men as is the case in other parts of the world where women are the victims of many problems in the society.

Poverty in Asia is such a great problem as studies have revealed that the largest percentages of the worlds poorest population live in this continent and most of the countries in Asia are developing countries. Countries like Cambodia, East Timor, Bhutan, Nepal, Burma, Mongolia, North Korea, Afghanistan and Pakistan are among the poor countries in the Asian continent and to some extent in the world.  To be able to understand better it is important to look at the state of poverty in some Asian countries.

Poverty in Afghanistan
Afghanistan has been ranked to be among the poorest countries in the world. Studies reveal that it has been actually ranked 169th out of 174 in the Human Development Index (World Bank, 2005). History records that the country has been always poor and even the socio economic developments that have taken place have not made any significant change. Most of the population that is poor lives in the rural areas as it is the case with other poor counties in the world. There are many factors that have led to this state of poverty.

According to a World Bank report, the country has been faced with a lot of conflicts, serious earth quakes for the last two decades (2005). Between the year 1999 and year 2001 there was a draught that caused adverse effects to the already poor citizens. After the state collapsed, many citizens especially the poor sought refuge elsewhere while the rest became internally displaced persons. The infrastructure was also destroyed and the peoples resources were destroyed especially in the rural areas. The conflict also affected the social amenities like schools and hospitals. Women were more so affected and the girls were not even allowed to attend school.

Like it is the case in many Asian countries, the impact of this poverty had great effects on the population. Infant and maternal mortality rate rose and in particular this country had the highest rates in the world.  Malnutrition rate among the children rose and about 50 of all the under five were malnourished (World Bank, 2005). Further studies of the same reveal that the life expectancy went down. All of the above can be termed to be some of the indicators of poverty.

The government developed some policies that helped to recover the economy. Due to the fact that agriculture contributes greatly to the economy, the government started providing farm inputs to the farmers and this contributed greatly to the growth of the economy. The refugees came back and this increased the human resources. The internally displaced persons went back to their homes and also the government reconstructed the public utilities that had been destroyed. The government developed macro economic polices which helped to keep the inflation under control. Although all these policies have not helped to completely alleviate poverty they have made a great impact.

Poverty in Pakistan
    According to the Asian Development Bank (2002), about 32 of the total population in Pakistan was among the poor in the year 1999. Most of the poor people live in the rural areas as it is the case in other countries. The slow economic growth has been recorded to be the main cause of the ever increasing poverty. The dominant economic activity in the rural areas is agriculture and because it has been on the decline, that accounts for the majority rural poor. Although studies have not been done to indicate how poverty affects male and females, women may be affected more because it has always been hard for them to access the labor market.

    According to the Asian Development Bank (2002), there are some factors that increase poverty vulnerability in the region. One of the most distinct characteristics is lack of education.  The same studies reveal that the poor are always the illiterate. In addition, the poor families have more children than the non poor families. Moreover, the poor households are headed mostly by aged persons who cannot be able to provide adequately for the family. Consequently, these poor families do no afford to educate their children and the cycle of poverty remains in the family.

    Although there are many causes of poverty in the country, the Asian Development Bank, (2002) argues that, the poor governance is the main cause, and this applies to other Asian countries. Poor governance reduces the investment rates in any country due to the poor provision of social amenities. In cases where the citizens lack confidence in their government as well as in other public institutions, law and order is interfered with creating an environment which is not favorable for economic growth. Poor economic growth has also been prevalent in the last decade.

Unequal distribution of resources causes some people to remain poor for a very long time. Finally, the environmental factors have adverse effects. Asian Development Bank (2002) records that water borne diseases have been on the increase and about 47 of the rural population and 12 of the urban population do not have access to pure drinking water. Further studies reveal that due to diseases, people who are already poor use the little they have on treatment.

    To alleviate this problem of poverty, the Pakistan government has put in some measures in place. All these measures are aimed at improving the living standards of the citizens. This is done to improve the services in the public institutions as well as other service delivery institutions. The government has also been trying to create more employment opportunities. It has introduced a devolution plan that allows the local government to provide services to the poor people. This ensures proper service delivery and equal distribution of resources.  The non-governmental organizations and other Christian Based Organizations are on the front line in the fight against poverty. Although some organizations are purely welfare, some provide micro finance services that are desperately needed by the small entrepreneurs. The private sector has also been playing a great role in provision of services like education and health care services (Asian Development Bank, 2002)

Causes of Poverty in Asia
Poor Governance
    There are many factors that have led to the ever increasing poverty in Asia. One of the most important factors that have prevailed in most countries is poor governance. This is clearly indicated in the Afghanistan and Pakistan cases above, and is the same in other counties in Asia. Poor governance can result to conflicts and civil war. Consequently, conflicts and wars results to destruction of the infrastructure as well as people. Other countries cannot also dare to invest in countries which are politically unstable and in turn this affects the economy of the country negatively.

Political instability has been persistent in many Asian countries.
Poor government policies are as a result of poor governance. Such policies do not encourage any economic growth and economic growth is a determinant factor in development. This is clearly demonstrated in countries like Afghanistan which suffered greatly after the collapsing of its government. The collapse of the Afghan government led to the destruction and a reduction of human resources especially when people died and others moved to other countries. The effect of any civil war or any type of war cannot be underestimated. Moreover, keeps off foreign investors leading to slow or even a negative economic growth.

Environmental Factors
Environmental factors have played a great role in increasing poverty in Asia. Environmental factors are diverse but almost all of them have contributed to poverty a number of countries. The persistent draughts which usually cause famine have made a major contribution in aggravating poverty .The draught that affected Afghanistan was a major cause of its poor status. Most of these Asian countries depend on agriculture and in case of draught the agricultural sector is greatly affected. Countries like Pakistan which also depend on agriculture are bound to suffer in case of any draught. Environmental degradation can also lead to the outbreak of diseases. Lack of pure drinking water leads to out break of diseases which reduces the productivity of the population. In addition, the governments as well as the citizens spend a lot of the income on medicine and this only aggravates the problem of poverty.
Government Policies on Dealing with Poverty

Improving the Economic Growth
    Improving the economic growth has been the main target in alleviating poverty. Studies reveal that over the last three decades, improving the economic growth has contributed greatly to the reduction of poverty. This has been achieved by putting in place sound macro economic policies that control the level of inflation. This policy achieved tremendous benefits in Afghanistan when it was put in place because it encouraged the growth of the economy.  To ensure that the growth benefits the poor, other policies are put in place like the adequate and equitable taxation system. Most governments have been putting a lot of effort in the provision of infrastructure that targets the needs of the poor. However, for such a policy to be effective the needs of the poor have to be considered failure to which policies may end up only benefiting those people who are well up and this may not actually solve the problem.

Agricultural Policies
    Since agriculture contributes more to the growth of the economy, then, most of the policies are geared towards improving the production in the agricultural sector. One of the policies in this area is to improve access to credit, market, and inputs.  To attain this, government controls the price of the farm inputs as well as giving credit to farmers so as to boost the production. Some governments have been privatizing parastatal bodies so as to improve the market of the agricultural produce. However, studies of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (1993) indicate that this has not always produced the desirable results because it only tends to favor the large scale entrepreneurs. This can be attributed to the fact that there has always been limited access to credit, and interest rates have been high. As a result, the poor can not benefit since they mainly engage in small scale farming.
Social Development Policies

    After realizing that economic growth alone cannot alleviate poverty, most governments have came up with policies to target the social and economic growth. Such policies aim at providing affordable services to the poor in the society like education and health care. This is being achieved by allocating more money to social services and also creation of favorable conditions that enable the poor to participate in the economic activities. Studies of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (1993) reveals that, a country like Sri Lanka and has been able to put this in to practice.
Effective Solutions to the Problem of Poverty

Increasing Productivity
    Since one of the causes of poverty is low productivity, then, all interventions should be geared towards increasing productivity and more so the productivity of the poor. To increase human productivity, the poor should be helped to access land and also credit as well as the other factors of production. Women should also be given opportunities so as to access the labor market as well as contribute to the economic activities because in most Asian countries women are not given equal opportunities as men. The government should also support programs that aim at reducing the number of children that live in poverty.  The poor countries should also invest more with programs that equip people with more skills through education and training. Trained people are always more productive. To put more emphasis on the need for education, Studies of Asian Development Bank (2002) shows that in Pakistan the majority of the poor are those that are uneducated meaning that poverty and education are related.

Reducing Vulnerability
    Draught and outbreak of diseases have played a great role in increasing poverty. Since most of these are natural disasters which cannot be prevented or predicted, it is imperative for these countries to reduce the vulnerability of the people. The government should have programs put in place which can ensure that the poor receive the necessary attention when such disasters occur.  There should be well established programs that can provide food aids and any other humanitarian support in case of a famine or draught. The poor should also be empowered to reduce their own vulnerability.
Accountability

    The already existing NGOs and government programs can help to some extent in alleviating poverty if only they became more accountable to the poor. In most cases, the poor do not have any power to fight for their rights or to influence the decision making process. If only these people can be empowered to be in a position to fight for their rights, then they can be in a position to benefit more from what is already being offered.

     It is evident that poverty is a major development problem in Asia. Most poor countries in Asia experience pervasive poverty i.e. poverty which has persisted for a very long time. According to this research paper, it can be concluded that one of the major causes of poverty is the poor government policies which take into account the interests of the poor. Other factors which have been highlighted include environmental factors, social economic factors among others. To reduce poverty, the already existing policies should be reevaluated so as to include the interests of the poor. Since studies have revealed that 70 of the poor are women, then the programs and policies should be put in place to include them in the development projects (Asian Development Bank, 2002). However, this problem is most likely going to prevail unless necessary and appropriate interventions are put in place.

Post Modern and Modern Literature play a prominent role in developing the past and present culture of China. Chinese people seem to relate effectively to these stories, fiction and history thus being able to find their own identity. In this paper we study two major authors in Chinese history. One of them is a fictional writer and the other a major historian, who reveal a great deal of knowledge about the thoughts, objectives and doubts of the Chinese people. A major concern of people living in the twentieth century is unsteadiness. The country was separated in a different ways by a variety of rulers, traditional values, and even though most of the people of China wanted One China, where everyone was united, there was a major generational conflict due to these traditions and values.
Families were always of utmost importance to the Chinese people as they usually lived in joint family systems. For example Chinese families customarily preferred sons compared to daughters and little children were treated as non humans always being reminded to live in their place. Love meant nothing to Chinese traditions and was usually viewed as a great threat to the communal and political systems. In order to restrain these occurrences of love and passion, rules were set up to control wedding, reproduction, heritage and the position for women. In China, Confucian viewpoint sermonized containment of family affection and matrimony was often viewed as a trade.
Family is Pa Chins autobiographical novel and focuses on the idea that has connotation across civilizing boundaries  the agitation and belongingness of youth to form an identity separately from the obsolete society and principles of their older generation is referred to as feudal in the novel.  This relates to the extensive protest movement carried out by the youth during the late 1960s and early 1970s, during which venerable political and individual morals and principles were questioned and most of them discarded. 

In Family, each of the three Kao brothers had been a victim of traditional values in many ways and has several other outstanding roles in the novel, which includes the maid servant Ming-Feng, cousin Chin and Cousin Mei.  The story also reflects the respected Master Kao being a victim of these customs and values. The position of aggravation of the youth in the family is overstated by as compared to the modern thinking of the people in China which resulted due to the movement on 4th May.  On May 4, 1919, there was a student protest on the Tiananmen Square and this was deep rooted in the irritation which was caused due to the decisions made in the Paris Peace Conference this allowed Japan to take over a part of Shandong province located in China.  However as historians put it, the protest was also a result of the traditional customs being followed and the main motto was to overthrow Confucius and Sons. 

The Cultural Revolution has started taking place in China since 1931 and the youth were found struggling for their independence from traditions and customs brought forward by the older generation. The question they had on their minds was whether they have to suffer only because they were young and because they were in denial to the identity and personal self-esteem in order to value
Confucian family tradition 

During the first part of the 20th century, Chinas conventional society was under immense pressure to adopt modern customs from the Westerners, and the ones under this pressure mostly was the youth generation, who familiarized themselves easily with the western lifestyle and traditions and that they did not have to be the victims of the distorted and mean  customs and valuesbut that this alteration would come at the cost of the familys reverence, which for the Chinese was the greatest value and must be cherished. The contradictions present in the characters of Pa Chins novel Family, were evident in each character of the story, ranging from the most vulnerable Cheuh-hui and the most conventional Master Kao, and this is what makes the reader relate to the cultural contradictions at that time in China. Pa Chin successfully tried to depict that all men have the craving both for freedom and belongingness it is treacherous and hard for any person to practice his or her egotism without considering their family, while the consequences of any person existing in a life distinct and forbidden exclusively by the family is perpetual pain and self-hatred. Pa Chin describes his characters as very soulful not one of them shows true constancy in their actions in opposition to their opinions on societal transformation or family customs and practices. The respected Master Kao, who was the head of the family and custodian of Confucian order in his family, is disparaged intrinsically by his grandson Cheuh-hui for belittling female impressionists and for his affection of his coarse, unattractive (Chin, 65) concubine that is a sarcastic taste when bearing in mind Master Kaos affection for elegant books and talent. Though the head of the family mentions that every word of his is final, he finally calls off the arranged marriage for Cheuh-min, the middle brother of the three, after he flees away in protest to this idea. I was wrong, the old man admits (Chin, 289). This is where Pa Chin shows remorse for the traditional conflicts and a hope for social progress against the Confucian values.

    Lu Xun, also known as Zhou Shuren, was a powerful author whose works personified the instability present in the attitude of time during the Confucianism. His writings seem to incline in the direction of supporting a Communist rule, though it is difficult to tell how he was affiliated to the Communist rule by just reading hi stories. All of Lu Xuns stories, however, absolutely have some hidden meaning about it that is not as understandable as the story itself which has a clear and blunt plot to itself. Most seem to be filled with perplexity and logic of not expressive as to what should be done. Many of these communal rules were the main themes of Lu Xuns short story titled Regret for the Past. The narrator of the story is Shi Juansheng, a man who had been through a tough and struggling, yet fascinating journey with his mistress Zijun. They were living together without marriage their familys permission and against the norms of the society in which they lived. At first their liaison was new, thrilling and bold nevertheless soon to be left miserable and finally shattered by the loss of his work and his truthful declaration that he was not in love with her any longer.

    He desired to have the same excitement and thrill back into his life when in the end he was left alone because Zijun kills herself, since she cannot break through the relentlessness and taboo that the traditions of the society had placed on him. Junasheng stood alone in the society and realizes that the happiness and peace is freezing him (Hsun, 21) he feels himself like a bird with paralyzed wings. All the characters in the story are close to life and one can easily relate to them as we all learn from them mistakes are a part of life and truth should always overcome hypocrisy. The story revealed what happens if we go against this theme in our real life. Zijun character was a clear depiction of female realization and all that a woman should not be in China under the Confucian values. 

    At the same time when Lu Xun is narrating this powerful woman he is also helping us notice what can happen if we try to go against the traditional Chinese customs. Lu Xun almost makes a relation to the revolution of the youth that was taking place at that time, but also tells the reader what could happen and how negatively it can happen if one tries to break free from the customary Chinese laws and traditions.

    This story is all about a woman consciousness and customization to the traditional Chinese society. Generally women can narrate to most of Zijuns struggle and adversity that she tolerated such as the conflict between being a physically powerful independent female while at the same time having admiration for your communal role and rejecting the desires required of the man you love.  Zijun declared at the start of her premarital relationship, Im my own mistress none of them have any right to interfere with me. (Hsun, 16) Zijun at these starting stages was regarded as controlling and physically and emotionally powerful for fleeing away and listening to her heart, however as the story urbanized she grew less powerful and instead became a weakling and a tired housewife who desired that her supposed husband would love her and their life would be same as before. She was agonized by the regret that she had for not being able to lead a joyful life like other men and women share. This is very common in western culture as well. The story reflects that where a womans sexuality can be a source of power for her, on the other hand the same sexuality can rob her off the power and dignity in the name of traditions and cultures.

    These two very prominent novels in Chinese literature were written in reaction to the miscellaneous faults that the society had. Lu Hsun and Pa Chin both commented on political and social problems that were evident in the early 20th century such as the events of 1911 revolution The May Fourth Movement. Also close to reality is their portrayal of womens rights, human liberty, and indifference and how each one of these turned out to be a catastrophe that people in China still face.

Mao Zedong and his importance in East Asian History from 1800s to 1990

    There are political leaders and then, there too are great political leaders. The question is what differentiates the two The political leader undertakes his or her task simply, allowing for the continuity of leadership of politics and related aspects from one leader and tenure to the next. The great leader impacts the place of his or her rule with great intensity. That leader introduces radical change geared at leading the country towards an improved and better future. That leader is as much a doer as well as a thinker, a planner and a visionary. That leader defied the odds and made significant sacrifices in the name of that leaders political vision and goals, in the name of public service. The great leader makes his or her own mark in history and in the consciousness of the people based on what he or she has accomplished which is significantly appreciated by the people. In reviewing the history, there are selected individuals who belong in this particular elite group. One of these individuals is Chinas Mao Zedong. Mao impacted Chinese politics. More than that, he was important in transforming the life of the people in China through broad, radical steps. Mao combined his intellectual prowess with his decisiveness and his drive to implement change. His accomplishment placed Chinas destiny towards a path that it may not have had if it was not for the initiatives and actions of Mao. In return, history has glorified Mao because of what he was able to accomplish. More than leaving a legacy, Mao left a style of political leadership that has become the template of effectiveness for China. Mao Zedong indeed, has become one of the political personalities during his time which has gained prominence. This stature was something that Mao has earned not just simply because of superficial characteristics which he nonetheless was endowed with like charm, leadership, vision and strength in character, but because of how he impacted the communist movement in China, in East Asia and around the world. In turn, this allowed him to impact the socio-political, economic, military and cultural history of his country, the region it is in, and the world in general.

    A native of Hunan province of China, Mao was the son of humble worker. Born on the 26th of December 1893, Mao was, during his early life, diligent with both his work helping his father in the farm, as well as in his studies. He did not allow personal and political conditions to stop him from studying. While he answered to the call of his place for soldiers to take part in the Xinhai revolution, he made sure that he resumed his studies after his days as a soldier was over. His inclination to study and education shaped his being a future intellectual. He associated himself with people from the academe, and greatly involved himself in lectures and supplemented it with readings during his personal time. This kind of life led him eventually towards the learning and understanding of communism. This was important in his being able to write his own ideas later about communism, Marxism and his development of his Maoist ideas which will become an important set of doctrine in communist governance and political perspectives. Mao married Yang Kaihui, to whom he had a son named Anying. An important step in his direction towards being immensely involved in communism and communist thought is his first time attendance to the National Congress of the Communist Party of China. This event was held in Shanghai, where Mao has frequented during his adult years. Soon, Mao found himself holding a political position in the Communist Party, serving as a commissar. His growing influence and position as well as political stature in the Party was the reason why he was tapped to organize the Kuomintang group back in his own hometown, in Hunan. Working for the Party and for the nationalist Kuomintang, this landed Mao different positions. Many different tasks that honed his understanding of politics allowed him to develop his own understanding of effective governance based on his experiences interacting with different kinds of people with his line of political work (Mao Zedong 559).

    There are those who undermine the rise of Mao Zedong to power, influence, clout and status as a political leader. There are several criticisms regarding this aspect (1) some consider Mao as a mere poster boy for communism (2) others believe that he was a puppet who is pulled by a puppet master. That individual is the one who should be the person to be recognized with regards to what he has managed to accomplish in China and for communism not just in the country or in the region but also around the world. There are people like Zhe De who acted on the background but was significant in how Mao was able to be successful in his actions. People often wonder if Mao deserves the credit for what was accomplished or if other people deserve to be duly commended Others think that (3) Mao was overrated (Cohen 84) others (4) explored the possibility that Mao and his government underwent the process of curing and treating history so that they appear bigger than who they are (5) others simply believe that Mao did not do anything positive for China for which he should be hailed as the masterful ruler that he is seen by China and by followers of the communist doctrine.

    Is Mao simply a poster boy for communism Critics of Mao and his works belief such was the case. Communism and Mao appear to have even applied a very literal translation to being a poster boy considering how Mao and communism in China has saturated the country with his image - in posters, in paintings, in propaganda materials etc (Azrael, Johnson 99). It seems that the people only see the face of Mao everywhere they look. Political analysts believe that this is a strategy similar to media bombarding the consciousness of the people with a particular message. If Mao indeed has had a strong impact in China and in communism as he was portrayed by many Maoist historians, the people will remember him and who he is based on what he did especially if this impacted the people in general in a positive way. However, because of Mao and the communist partys actions regarding reproducing and distributing Maos image in many different places of China gives the people, especially the critics a reason to believe that Mao was no more than a poster boy for communism in China and for communism globally.    It may also be possible that there is someone bigger controlling Mao. If he was indeed a puppet, whatever he accomplished is not reflective of his capabilities especially if there was a bigger power in the background that made it happen. This is not surprising. Many political theories believe in the socio-political condition inside a place involving a significant political person who is in fact a mere puppet by a bigger entity. This is an individual who is being used for a particular goal, in the case of China the spread of communism among other things. It can be any military, political or even economic individuals, entity or group that has much to gain if and when Mao is able to accomplish what he did.

    This leads to the next criticism about Mao being an overrated political entity. This can be possible. The extent of the communist propaganda in China as well as in the East Asia region and in the world has been extensive. Oddly enough, most of this propaganda features only Maos face and a set of words and phrases meant to evoke emotion, but hardly any info regarding what Mao did, what he was doing and what he planned to do in the future, making people think he is overrated. In communist countries, it is not surprising to find historical text and content manipulated. This could have played a factor regarding how Mao is perceived by China and the world today, seriously distorting the real impact of Mao and the real actions he did during his reign. Mao was considered as overrated. This is because many people believed that he did not do anything positive as a whole and was guilty of many negative actions. He used force all throughout his political career to secure his place in the revolutionary and communist ranks, terrorizing not just his enemies but also those who appear as threat to his position and political abilities and privileges.

    Lastly, the main criticism directed at the idea of Maos political significance is the idea that he did not do anything positive for China that merits his status as significant. This pertains to the aspects like how China suffered under Mao, the socio-civic issues and the problems with internal and external politics during Maos time. Critics are reminding the people and the rest of the world how Mao was a monster in his own right considering his attack on human rights through his torture of suspected anti-Mao inside the ranks. This was identified through his acts of purging, torturing those found guilty, many of whom dying in the process while others were simply exterminated and terminated. All of these criticisms may have its own basis and proof that those who are in favor of these perspectives use to justify their position in this issue. These claims can be argued against. More importantly, the assessment and analysis of the extent and gravity of impact of Mao Zedong as a communist political leader will eventually prove to have a heavier and more significant weight and meaning, as well as bearing in the overall issue on Maos stature and his significance as a political leader. All of these criticisms undermine the real ability of Mao and the extent of actions and initiatives undertaken by Mao so that he can realize the vision and goal that he has for a better communist China. This paper will discuss how exactly he impacted China, Chinese history and communism  in China, in East Asia and around the world.

    To say that Mao is not a significant political figure because he did not contribute anything is a serious misunderstanding of the life of Mao. Even before he rose to political prominence in a nationwide scale, Mao was already a leader (Min 146) and was making a difference for groups of people in China. For example, Mao, during his younger years, was already leading several union struggles, helping workers and laborers fight for their rights even though there are many instances wherein his efforts and the efforts of unions and union groups were thwarted by government. Maos strength in character and potential for leadership is seen, before his victories, in his defeat and how he dealt with it - with an analytical and critical mind.

    For example, his defeats in the union and labor group struggle was something that he analyzed, looking at where he failed and what adjustments he has to make, assessing not just himself and his allies but also his enemies, and the battleground where they are fighting, alongside political conditions and economic implications of the possible course  of action to take in his next fight versus the feudal and imperialist practices of the ruling Chinese government prior to his ascension to national leadership. Mao was unafraid - he was not afraid to use violence to move towards change. It was the case of using a wolf to fight other wolves. The suppression of peasants, laborers and blue collar workers employed on menial jobs and are subjected to harsh working conditions, environment and terms is a status quo that hardly changed for years because of the failure and inability of the peaceful and unarmed revolution to bring about change. That was what Mao tried to address when he shifted his strategy from unarmed to violent protests.

    Mao successfully cultivated the image of an effective leader. He was educated, passionate, unafraid, but more importantly, he was from the same class of people. Historians believe that like in many cases around the world, it is the public, particularly those coming from the poor sector (which is often the majority of the population) that elevates a political leader to the pedestal, and not the rich elite. Other communist and non-communist leaders before, during and after the time of Mao was almost similar as Mao. However, they were not from the peasant class. They are trying to use and tap the poor people to help them and back them in their direction for social change, which, more often than not, is unsuccessful. Some of the reasons why this was the case including these considerations (1) the poor people finds it hard to sympathize with people who they know are above them in social status and (2) the rich elite do not know the pulse of the poor people and that is why they have difficult time establishing a genuine connection that can forge the union and alliance necessary for a strong movement towards the direction for change. This was not a problem for Mao, and as more and more peasants got to know of Maos humble background. They felt that he was one of them. They supported him which in turn allowed Mao to amass popular support which is significant in his victory later on in the biggest political arena in China.

    China was strongly impacted by two things  Maos political ideas and Maos actions. The political ideas of Mao were communicated to the people and to the world via his writings. Early in his immersion in political thought up to his later years, Mao strongly pursued writing. As a result of this endeavor, his political masterpieces like On Contradiction as well as On Practice were put in writing and were widely read by many individuals who had the same set of belief as Mao Zedong. These two essays, among his other works, contain his important insights on things affecting politics and political governance as well as communism, including issues such as strategies. It also includes ideas regarding the revolutionary movement and other information that Mao was able to synthesize, understand and elucidate in his essays through his first hand experience regarding this matters (Schram 61). Mao is an organizational leader. In the eventual revolution that will engulf China which will be led by Mao and some of his other fellow communist leaders, historians believe that Maos organization of the peasants in the lowest level working his way up and his identification of political as well as military leaders for each units strongly contributed to the victory of the revolution. The people were organized not just in among its leaders, but more importantly, among the peasants and poor people serving as foot soldiers for the revolution. Mao resorted to recruiting soldiers from rural areas and farmlands. He also went up the mountains and persuaded the guerrilla movement operating there to merge with Maos army, which will form what then was known as  the Workers and Peasants Red Army of China. Today, this is known simply by its shorter name, Red Army (Schram 59).

    From military tactics, Mao also took a political role. This is evident in his many actions including his role in the creation of the Soviet Republic of China. This refers to the area Mao and his army controlled somewhere in the Jiangxi, a place that operates under the doctrine and dogma of the Soviet communist. Here, Mao started his function as a political leader. From that small place, Maos political leadership was to spread inside key cities and towns in China where political power is located. His mettle as a political and military leader was again to be tested during this time in his political life, not just by his enemies but also by those who are on his side but are not fully supportive of what he wants to do and his directions. Fellow Communists and members of the Red Army soon was challenging and questioning Mao. Mao remained unperturbed by this development. Instead of cowering, he met this resistance by force, using many approaches to suppress his enemies and maintain a solid and united front under his leadership. Besides his writings, he also influenced China through his political actions. Under the leadership of Mao, China saw the creation of a new force that challenged Chiang Kai Shek and his Kuomintang who is ruling the government, and to challenge as well the communists who are against Mao. Some of the communist leaders in Russia supporting communism in China believe that Mao was going against some of the ideas of the party leadership. Over time, this proved to be a reason insufficient to remove the power and influence of Mao. Proof of this is the fact that the leadership of the opposing communist group was plagued by defection problems of its key leaders, like Zhou Enlai who went with Mao. Mao never lost the support of the peasant soldiers he created and his influence in his Soviet districts that he created inside China, which the Kuomintang tried to break for years but was unsuccessful overall (Schram 59).

    Mao created a new group of soldiers an army that was important in fighting Japan during the Sino-Japan War. This was viewed nonetheless by the regular government army and the government itself as a threat to national security, branding Mao and his soldiers as guerrillas, resulting to Mao being branded as Chinas father of guerilla warfare (Mao Zedong 559). The Sino-Japan War and the Second World War served as opening acts only to the inevitable showdown between the Nationalist Kuomintang and the communist Peoples Liberation Army led by Mao. In this battle and the political outcome resulting from this, will significantly define life in China in the next coming years. This will also be the defining years for Mao, wherein he will cement and galvanize all of the efforts that he started to undertake years ago. This will start the reign of the rule of Mao which will bring significant and important changes to life in China and will characterize a positive development in China for years. Mao and his PLA fought hard and strong versus Chiang and the Kuomintang, resulting to the defeat of the Kuomintang, the fleeing of Chang to Taiwan and the start of a new era in Chinese national leadership. When the Peoples Republic of China was officially created on October 1, 1949 after the defeat of Chang and the Nationalists, it was the culmination of the vision as well as actions of Mao. Mao has worked so hard for and sacrificed, undertook and carried as a burden while he was in the process of fighting to change the political system. He was s able to reap its rewards by seeing his vision come true. His election as the leader of the PRC was testament to the importance of Mao to China and testament to how the people believe that it was because of Maos effort that all of these things are now realized (Mao Zedong 559).

    One of the most important contributions of Mao to communism is his own set of political ideas which he developed. This leads to the creation of what is now known as Maoist ideas as well as other important ideas re-shaping communism (Azrael, Johnson 99). They are aligned with Communist and Marxist ideas but have their own characteristics separating Maoist theories and perspectives from that of Communism and Marxist ideas. The creation of the Maoist approach to communism is a significant contribution of Mao to communism. He gave Communism a new facet is his own way of giving back to communism, a form of political ideology that has inspired him and has helped shaped how he thinks and feels. Communism as a political perspective helped him identify his goals and directions politically, for himself and for China. At the realization of its success, what he has to say or write about it allowed for the creation of an entirely separate communist set of ideals known as Maoism. This was a political perspective that would be an important reading to future communist leaders who would come after Mao and would influence many individuals as well as leaders. Mao impacted communism by identifying some of the key aspects in the belief that are unsuitable, at least in the China setting, for it to be successful in shaping the country and becoming a popular political ideology in any country. During his time, many other countries are aspiring for a shift to communism. However, not every effort was successful. Maos effort was successful because he had the knowledge and understanding of the complexities of politics and governance to know, detect and transform some aspects of communism so that it fits better to the national condition inside which it is being applied.

    Mao has impacted not just China but also the East Asia region. His writing regarding communism and the actions necessary for his fellowmen to be able to defeat the enemy especially during the presence of the threat of Japanese invasion in some parts of the country are some of the text that helped educate the people. This provided the people with a sense of direction regarding how to deal with the problem, especially in rural and countryside areas of China. These areas are hardly reached by the national government and are often left to their own devices to deal with local problems which are nonetheless strongly connected with national issues and concerns. Mao and his own brand of communism known as Maoism impacted East Asia militarily and politically. What he established was either a new ally or a new enemy among its East Asian neighbors, based on how they are to react to Mao and the new PRC.

    How he impacted China, Communism and East Asia (as well as the rest of the world) is divided into two phases the impact he made during his time and the impact that resonated long after he was gone. It is not easy to fully quantify which between these two time lines reflect the most powerful manifestation of the impact and effect of Maos leadership and action. What is true is that Maos impact in both these time lines proves how strongly Mao has affected the political consciousness and status quo of China, of East Asia and the rest of the world. There are varying as well as similar effects and conditions found in comparison of these two time lines, both serving as testament to how Mao is seen as a political leader that designed, created, led, sustained and realized one of the most important revolutions in China, in East Asia and in the world during this particular era. During his time, Maos impact was seen in how things have changed in China, in East Asia and in the world. Chinese politics and the relation of China with other countries changed because of Mao. The political direction of other countries changed as a result of the impact. Neighboring countries in the East Asia region reconsidered the things that they wanted to do and pursue especially those involving China. Neighboring East Asian countries like Japan and Korea experienced the fall out resulting from the impact of Maos political power and the manifestation of such power in China.

    Mao and his Maoist ideas proved to be enduring. Long after he died, many leaders inspired by leftist understanding rely on the ideas of Mao and on the tenets of Maoism to develop their own political idea. Analysts continue to target Mao and his political ideas in analysis and discussion on politics. Students are being taught about Mao and his works. Several of them are inspired by what they read and what they learn about Mao and his ideas. Today, Maos ideas are still relevant and are not considered old, archaic and even anachronistic. Leftist groups all around the world and leftist movements still rely on what Mao has written and taught and still use this information to maintain an effective and sustainable movement geared at impacting socio political change as Mao himself has envisioned (Lowes 152). Today, Maoism remains one of the most enduring tactics of communist revolution (Lowes 152).

    Mao Zedong served China for many years. After the revolutionary era, Mao allowed for change to take place. Theres the Great Leap as well as the Cultural Revolution, among many things. These are contributions Mao made to China and its people. The most important aspect of Maos efforts still lies in how he strove and was successful in establishing and starting the movement that will change China forever. That alone is enough to say that Mao is a very important man in his own era based on what he did, what he accomplished and how he impacted not just China but East Asia and the world.

I am a time traveller.  I have journeyed from the present to medieval Japan, during the Genroku period, disguised as the son of a silk trader.  I have travelled all the way from Osaka to Edo upon the advice of my friend, Kohei, who is the son of a wheat merchant.  Tonight, we have decided to cross the bridge to the Nihonbashi, to watch jojuri (puppet plays) written by a popular playwright named Chikamatsu.  

    The Genroku era is a period of relative peace that reigned throughout Japan.  At this time, Japan had closed its borders to the outside world, and the Bakufu have maintained its grip on power for decades.  But even so, the Emperor rules the Japanese citizenry, albeit a symbolic one.  Growth and urbanization began to revitalize the economy, after years of warfare and famine.  Emerging classes began to dominate and influence traditional Samurai beliefs.  Popular artworks and literature began to circulate not only throughout the ruling warrior classes, but among the wealthy merchant class as well.  Throughout this gradual socio-political transformation, one form or entertainment captured the imagination and intrigue of audiences of all classes theatre. 

    Traditional Japanese theatre arts are an ancient time-honored set of performance practices passed down from one generation onto the next.  Students master the stances and nuances in the language demonstrated by their teachers and successful actors experiment different variations of their own as they become part of the tradition.

    The earliest recorded performances can be found in the ancient Japanese mythology.  A sacred event depicted in the Kojiki (712) and the Nihonshoki (720), occurred in the mythological age of the deities.  To induce the Sun Goddess to come out of a cave where she had hidden herself in anger at her brothers misbehavior, a female deity named Uzume put on a costume, stamped on an overturned bucket, became possessed, and, according to one version of the story, revealed her genitals.  The divine audience roared in appreciative laughter, and the Sun Goddess, her curiosity aroused by this merriment, emerged from the cave, thereby restoring light to the universe. 

    Influences from China and Korea eventually reached Japanese shores, which became popular in the imperial court during the Nara (710-784) and Heian (794-1186) eras.  Kabuki, which originally comprised of women actors but later replaced by men due to moral disruption, emerged around the 1680s as a major theater-form in the Osaka, Kyoto and Edo areas, and it respective actors became renown for their performances.  Several great actors became associated with the plays, including the renowned Sakata Tojuro (1647-1709) who performed in Osaka and in other cities in a number of Chikamatsu plays.

Edo at the Time of Amijima
    Here in Edo, merchants began to thrive at the turn of the Edo period.  At days, merchants go about their businesses, selling and inquiring about their customers requests.  Sometimes in these transactions, those who are married are assisted, and in some cases substituted, by their wives.  At nights, some of the men venture out into the central districts, either to watch plays or to savor a drink or two.  The bold ones would cross  the bridge onto the pleasure quarters at Yoshiwara, where they cavort with courtesans in the vain hope of gaining their affections.        

    The political landscape of Japan changed after the Age of the Warring States.  The first decision, made by Hideyoshi in 1591, was to remove vast numbers of samurai fighters from the villages that had provided men and materiel for continuing rebellion. The second decision was to tighten the leash on the daimyo --- as grave a threat to the peace as errant samurai --- by requiring their personal attendance on the hegemon. The policy was formulated, following Hideyoshis death and lacerating battles over succession, by the early heads of the Tokugawa house, who ruled from 1603 until 1868 under the imperially granted title of shogun.  This mandate contributed to the rapid urbanization of three cities Edo, Osaka, and Kyoto.  Edo prospered under the periodic visits to the imperial city by daimyos.  The port of Osaka grew in size and became the center of the rice trade.  Kyoto became the leading producer of fine goods.  Extended manufacturing became widespread as demand from these cities rapidly grew.

      The ruling class made contact with the lowly performers of the artisans, merchants and craftsmen bought and sold goods.  During the conquests of Korea, Japanese troops brought to their shores substantial fonts of movable copper type, as well as books printed from them. Around the same time, Jesuit missionaries brought the Roman type to Japan, establishing presses for devotional and instructional literature in Kyoto, Nagasaki, and other towns. Japanese artisans may actually have printed a number of Confucian texts from the Korean type.  The political intrigues as well as the social viewpoints of the day are immortalized in books, plays, and music.  The urbanization of Japan was underway, amidst the existing class system and strict regulation by the Shogunate. 

Merchants and Courtesans
    On our way to the theater, Kohei told me about an incident back in Osaka.  A wealthy merchant committed suicide after his seafood trading company incurred heavy losses and closed down.  The merchant was notorious for pursuing amorous affairs during his stays in the pleasure quarters of Osaka.  Their daughters were allegedly sold to the pleasure quarters.  Kohei remarked that the merchants story would probably become the latest subject of Chikamatsus  love-suicide dramas.  But I knew that Amijima would become Chikamatsus last work on the love-suicide genre. 

    The merchant class, in particular, benefited the most from the cities growth.  They acted as middlemen in much of the business doings of the city.  As professionals, they took on government projects, moved commodities from one city or region to another and acted as money-lenders and speculators in the burgeoning of an affluent economy. Unlike samurais, artisans and farmers, the wealthy merchants earn respect, oftentimes admiration, of the townfolk by the wealth they amassed as trade between towns flourished through the river.  The official class system in Japanese culture at the time did not take economic status into consideration and, in theory, the merchants were the fourth in a class hierarchy that comprised, above them, from the top, samurai, farmers, and artisans.

    Wealthy merchants thus became the nouveau riche among the townsfolk, with considerable power and influence.  Such impression, however, is not shared among the warrior classes, where money is regarded with distaste.  Although warriors and merchants belong to different classes, some ronin or masterless samurai abandon the Way of the Sword to become merchants.

    The pleasure quarters, described by artists as a floating world, are special districts occupied by trained courtesans.  They offer their guests entertainment, leisure, indulgence, as well as pleasant companionship.  They differ from the brothels in the West in that guests are treated with utmost courtesy and civility, with neither hint nor sign of vulgarity.  In her book, Jacqueline Gibbons observes

    The women of those quarters had many different gradations of status, and those with      high class were often talented in song, dance, poetry recital, calligraphy, arrangement,      the great art of the tea ceremony and, of course, sophisticated companionship.      Indeed, unlike     the western tradition of prostitution, these relationships often     comprised institutionalized affairs that lasted over long periods of time.      Problems,     in the east as in the west, emerged when jealousy and love entered into the     relationship, and when the couple might find that they could not live without     each other.       

    Pleasure quarters originally had no fixed district until 1612, when Shogu Jingemori, repeated his request for a special district, stating that whorehouses scattered all over the city encourages negligence towards masters, embezzlement, theft, and kidnappings of children to be sold to whorehouses.  The First Tokugawa Shogun relented and appointed him as the first Keisei-machi Nanusbi --- Director of the Courtesan Quarter, with a few imposed ground rules. 

    These classes of medieval Japanese society would become the subject of scrutiny and controversy in both Sonezaki and Amijima. 
The Shakespeare of Japan

    The play for tonight was titled Love Suicides at Amijima.  The play tells the story of a paper-seller merchant who fell in love with a courtesan and vows to commit suicide with her.  Although the names were changed, the story was allegedly based on real events.  This is not the only tragicomedy that Chikamatsu had penned.  Sixteen years ago, he wrote a play titled Love Suicides at Sonezaki, which had a similar scenario.  Sonezaki was extremely popular among the audiences at the time of its debut, while  Amijima garnered controversy , as well as scholarly interest for its insights on society.        

    Chikamatsu Monzaemon, a popular dramatist of kabuki and puppet-plays, is often regarded by scholars as The Shakespeare of Japan.  His works include jidaimono (historical plays), some of which ran for more that a year.  Modern students of the drama are more attracted by his twenty-four sewamono, or domestic pieces, which are brief, coherent, realistic plays, peopled not with the famous warriors, emperors, and nobles of the past, as are his jidaimono, but with merchants, prostitutes, farmers, and other members of the lower orders, familiar to Chikamatsus audiences from their own experiences.  Chikamatsus works are rarely performed, mainly because of the declining popularity of puppet-plays. Today, several of his works survive as adaptations for Kabuki plays and film.
Love Suicides at Amijima (Shinju Ten no Amijima)

     Considered to be one of Chikamatsus masterpieces, The Love Suicides at Amijima is a domestic play depicting love suicides during the Genroku period.  Its predecessor, The Love Suicides at Sonezaki (Sonezaki shinju, 1703), was a retelling of an actual incident, and brought the genre to the mainstream.  Unlike the latter, however, Amijima explores the intricacies of a love triangle by treating the wife, O-san, as a major character. Viewers are treated to a spectacle of music and drama, as the doomed lovers, between a well-to-do merchant and a courtesan of the pleasure gardens, are made to suffer from societys restrictions and taboos, until they meet their fate.  The play had been revived on several occasions, expanding further the characters depths, before the love suicide genre was prohibited as a subject of plays in less than two years since its premiere.  By the time it was revived, the popularity had waned. 

The Social Code
    Among the merchant class, the code of giri is strictly followed. Were it not for the complications brought about by giri, Jihei would not have pursued Koharu in Amijima, in the same way that Tokubei would not have gone to see Ohwatsu in Sonezaki both scenarios leading to their tragic fates.

    Giri is the state of a person who is bound to behave in a prescribed way toward a certain other person.  The content of this duty or obligation varies greatly according to the situation in which the subject of the duty is placed and of the person toward whom the duty is owed.   The fulfilment of duty is of primary importance in medieval Japanese society.  Its military origins were transformed to a civilian format. Previously, a military adherence to social rules means no major personal dilemma because discipline and questions were so clear-cut and institutionalized . So sacred is duty to members of all classes, that to cause shame means certain death. But death without honor becomes the center of conflict in some of Chikamatsus works.  In Amijima, O-san, confessed to Jihei her part in having him separated from Koharu.  She implored him to spare Koharu from dishonor by allowing him to visit the courtesan.  She reveals to him in an excerpt
    . . .   When I saw that you had lost your head about her and were likely to commit     suicide with her, I was overcome with grief.  In desperation I wrote to her, beseeching     her to sympathize with me and break with you, even at the cost of her love, and thus     save you from so rash an act.  Touched by my prayer she returned me a kind letter     saying, that though you were her dearest lover, more precious to her that life, yet her     sense of duty toward me and her sympathy compelled her to give you up.  See, I     carry her letter in the amulet case.  Why suppose that such a woman should break     her     vow and shamelessly wed Tahei Woman is a constant creature and will not readily     change her mind. Koharu will surely kill herself.  She will die. How terrible     Come now, save her from death You must, my husband.

    Jihei was torn between his obligation to his family, having signed the Kumano Go no Muragasu vowing not to see Koharu again, and his wifes debt of honor to Koharu in seeking to prevent her from committing suicide.  The tragedy was completed when O-san was forcefully divorced by her father, who treated Jihei as if he was no son-in-law.    

In Chikamatsus Osaka, Gibbons explains Chikamatsus rationale for the tragedy
    Chikamatsu suggests on many occasions that these obligations oppress the     individual they divide peoples loyalties and interfere with human passion. . .         Chikamatsu points to the dilemmas of contemporary society where peace reigns, yet     where the family and obligations of loyalty threaten to crush the passions of     individual men and women as they fall deeply in love or are deeply in debt in a     world where there may only one way to namely, a love-suicide.  

    Both Sonezaki and Amijima seem to fault the Japanese tendency of adherence to the restrictions imposed on society as the primary cause of the tragedy.  In his own way, Chikamatsu shows to his audiences how these restrictions create a class confrontation of sorts and constantly reminds them of their own humanity.  

Ritualistic Suicide    As the doomed couples lives finally ended, the crowd appeared to applaud the act and some even shed tears.  Here, the taking of ones life is treated with sacredness and respect.  To uphold his honor in the face of shame, a samurai is forced to disembowel himself. 

    Suicide in Japanese society tends to be revered if committed on the basis of authentic moral intentions.  The overriding value of social and group harmony pushes Japanese of all classes to make sacrifices for the sake of the group.  Thus, suicide is considered virtuous and necessary because it promotes the harmony and well-being of the group.  It is seen as an act of selfless fulfilment of duty.

    Samurais of medieval Japan were expected to value highly the virtues of loyalty and honor.   Suicide is seen as a demonstration of loyalty, a generally accepted form of execution to clear ones name. Seppuku was the form of suicide used most commonly by the upper class samurai.  In Amijima, the double-suicide performed by Jihei and Koharu is different from seppukku in that former is glorified in the samurai tradition the latter is seen as a pure, sincere act, which moves audience to tears.  Chikamatsus glorification of a lovers suicide, is thought to have an impact on the high suicide rate amongst entertainment girls that had ever existed since he was in writing
The Saving Net of Buddha

    As I left the theatre, I heard the womenfolk chattering.  They both praise Koharu for her fidelity and O-san for her chastity in the face of indignity.  Next, I listened to the men who had gathered.  Their conversations were filled with affairs with women in the pleasure quarters and daring each other to go across the bridge to Yoshiwara.  It seems that only a few people would concede that something is wrong with the Japanese medieval code of honor. But even fewer people would agree that Jihei and Koharu would be spared from suffering damnation for their acts.    

    Chikamatsu is relentless in plotting his characters and their tragedies, but he does not condemn their foolishness.  Instead, he finishes the story with a possibility of salvation for his characters.  The phrase Ten no ami means net of heavens, and is meant, among others things, as the saving net of Amida Buddha.  This show of mercy is indeed a sharp contrast to the rigid Confucianist principles that inspired the code of Bushido among the warrior classes and the code of giri among the commoners. 

    The exoneration of suicide by Buddhists finds basis in their religions way of life.  In defining suicides among persons, scholars note that such exoneration may only refer to an individual who have already cut off desire and by so doing neutralised their actions by making them incapable of producing further fruit.  Meaning, suicide by an enlightened person does not bring about damnation in the afterlife, because of the purity and nobleness of their intentions.  In Amijima, Jihei and Koharu cut off locks of their own hair as a symbol of a life as monks, and in doing so they severed their ties to their families and loved ones.   Thus, they ceased to cling to the world, the self, and all other impermanent things and reject the false belief that the world and self are permanent.  The final act was their separate performance Koharu by means of a dagger, and Jihei by hanging.  They let go of their passions and desires, specially for each other, and died for the sake of no one but their own..  

    I returned to Osaka to prepare for my departure.  A few days before I going back to the present, Kohei went to see me.  He told me that the courtesan who allegedly  caused the fish merchant to go bankrupt and commit suicide also killed herself, right at the place where he  took his own life.  He approved the act, saying that that woman should have done it sooner.  Being an outsider looking into the Japanese mindset, it would be a struggle for me to fully understand suicide as a culturally prescribed role-behavior and not as a result of an emotionally disturbed mind.  But the Japanese had a rich and colorful cultural history, and it must be studied and appreciated with an open mind.

Considered to be one of the most important contemporary writers in modern Japan, Haruki Murakami shot to fame with his novel  Norwegian Wood , a story about sexuality and loss, which sold 4 million copies in Japan instantly turning him into a Japanese pop culture icon.
   
Although most of his stories are set in  modern Japan, his portrayal of everyday things and gritty realities  depict  most cities of the modern world. Since his works are heavily influenced by Western culture, with cameos of Marlboro cigarettes and McDonalds, allusions to   western music and values, Murakami is able to bridge the gap between the wild West and the oriental East. Thus, his works  transcends cultures and speaks to a global audience. Some critics have criticized him for being predictable, using almost similar characters and mirroring plots (www.complete-review.com) but he too has been praised for presenting a fresh eye and imagination into contemporary literature.
   
And  what an imagination it is. Upon reading a Muraki novel, one is taken through a bizarre journey of realities, dreams and other dimensions. Although he grounds his novels in the everyday people that act as his protagonists, his presentation of their experiences are out of the ordinary. He sends his characters into alternate realities, lets them have conversations with ghosts and out of body experiences. If he were not a novelist, Haruki Murakami will surely have equal success as a Surrealist painter.

The Elephant Vanishes into the TV
TV people is a short story found in Murakamis short story compilation book  The Elephant Vanishes.  Powells books.com describes  the book as  haunting and hilarious  and an assault on the normal.  It contains stories ranging from the disappearance of a favorite elephant, a guy seeing the love of his life, losing sleep yet finding freedom, and the intricacies of family relationships. The book is again a perfect blend of Murakamis style of reality and disambiguity, tackling such issues as love, independence and dependence.
   
From all the stories found in  The Elephant Vanishes , TV People stands out in its style and presentation. TV people is a story of a man who one day receives a TV delivered to his apartment. What fascinated the man was not the TV he received but the the people who delivered it. Referred to as the  TV people , they are described as slightly smaller than the average man, who silently works setting up the mans TV. The man is intrigued as to who and what these people are, especially since he did not even buy the television. However, he is even more puzzled by the fact that these TV people did not seem to see him and acknowledge his presence. However, he again sees the TV people at work and this was where things started to turn bizarre. Every time the man would ask his officemates about the TV people, the officemates would just ignore him, much like the way the TV people ignored him. This sets him on a journey of self critique, questioning his own identity and ultimately his own existence.
   
It is a fascinating read as it has the tone of a suspense movie, with all the questions hanging in the air as the TV people intrude upon the life of the protagonist. What is great about the story is that it does not only tell a tale of a man questioning his own existence but it also presents the reader something to chew and ponder upon. The  theme of existing or non-existing through the acknowledgement of others is very thought provoking especially in a modern society where identities and lives are created through the attention of other people.
   
Another interesting thing to note is that the introduction of the TV into the protagonists life led to his journey of self-critique. Some reviews o fthe story revealed that Haruki Murakami actually wrote TV People as a critique on  a technology saturated society. Much like how the TV impacted the life of the protagonist, the fast paced development and assimilation of technology in human lives has altered man and his values. People now live in a world where the media and technology dictate what is right and what is wrong, who is important and who is not, who exists and who doesnt. Especially in Japan where the rapid development of Information and Communication technologies have resulted in a fast paced and highly competitive society,  a  lost generation  has emerged in their society. Youths who live like hermits in their own houses that they became so detached from reality. Much like the TV people who shunned the outside world while they go on their way. This story attempts to wake society from its dependence on technology. 
   
Entertaining in its suspense but intelligent in its presentation, TV people is vintage Murakami. It presents ordinary settings, ordinary things, made extraordinary by the stories that they lead.